Systems Theory in Project Management - Revision history

Costanza Sesti at 21:51, 4 March 2019

2019-03-04T21:51:42Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:51, 4 March 2019
Line 4:		Line 4:
	==Abstract==		==Abstract==
	This article aims to explore how the Systems Theory can be applied to Project Management and how it helps to deal with project complexity. In particular, it starts with a general description of the Systems Theory, from the definition of a system to the development of the system thinking in engineering <ref name=engsys>Engineering Systems-Meeting Human Needs in a Complex Technological World, 2011, Olivier L. de Weck, Daniel Roos, and Christopher L. Magee, page 180</ref>. It is not clear if engineering systems constitute a new discipline with theorems and frameworks that could be applied to every type of engineering systems. For this reason, the article continues illustrating which are the properties of a system (like the capacity of adaptation of the system in order to always seek for the equilibrium) and it discusses if it is licit to use this theory in the project management field underlying the benefits that it brings. At this point, the different components of a system in the project manager field are presented: objectives, boundaries, attributes, relationships, and environment. A big role is played by the interconnections and the relationships within the different parts of the same system which characterize and defines the system itself. Defining them correctly may have a great impact on the effectiveness and efficiency of the Systems Theory. In the paragraph related to the application, the main tools used to translate the system thinking in graphics are reported in relation to the project lifecycle development. Further readings about the use of the tools themselves are suggested. However, the article focuses on explaining the applications of causal loop diagrams and systems archetypes related to the levels of thinking. It ends with the main limitations that the Systems Theory faces: the fact that it may be not applicable or hard to apply to smaller organizations and that it is prefered by experienced rather than inexperienced project managers.		This article aims to explore how the Systems Theory can be applied to Project Management and how it helps to deal with project complexity. In particular, it starts with a general description of the Systems Theory, from the definition of a system to the development of the system thinking in engineering <ref name=engsys>Engineering Systems-Meeting Human Needs in a Complex Technological World, 2011, Olivier L. de Weck, Daniel Roos, and Christopher L. Magee, page 180</ref>. It is not clear if engineering systems constitute a new discipline with theorems and frameworks that could be applied to every type of engineering systems. For this reason, the article continues illustrating which are the properties of a system (like the capacity of adaptation of the system in order to always seek for the equilibrium) and it discusses if it is licit to use this theory in the project management field underlying the benefits that it brings. At this point, the different components of a system in the project manager field are presented: objectives, boundaries, attributes, relationships, and environment. A big role is played by the interconnections and the relationships within the different parts of the same system which characterize and defines the system itself. Defining them correctly may have a great impact on the effectiveness and efficiency of the Systems Theory. In the paragraph related to the application, the main tools used to translate the system thinking in graphics are reported in relation to the project lifecycle development. Further readings about the use of the tools themselves are suggested. However, the article focuses on explaining the applications of causal loop diagrams and systems archetypes related to the levels of thinking. It ends with the main limitations that the Systems Theory faces: the fact that it may be not applicable or hard to apply to smaller organizations and that it is prefered by experienced rather than inexperienced project managers.


	==Big idea==		==Big idea==
Line 39:		Line 40:

	The following section aims to describe the main properties of a system which are fundamental in order to understand the basis and, then, the application of Systems Theory.		The following section aims to describe the main properties of a system which are fundamental in order to understand the basis and, then, the application of Systems Theory.


	===System Properties===		===System Properties===
Line 59:		Line 61:
	*'''System Hierarchy'''		*'''System Hierarchy'''
	To conclude, systems are organized by a hierarchy which is related to the vitality, survivability, and purpose of a system. By understanding the hierarchy it is possible to learn internally and externally systems interconnections<ref name=pmi />.		To conclude, systems are organized by a hierarchy which is related to the vitality, survivability, and purpose of a system. By understanding the hierarchy it is possible to learn internally and externally systems interconnections<ref name=pmi />.


	===Systems Theory in Project Management===		===Systems Theory in Project Management===
Line 76:		Line 79:
	==Applications==		==Applications==
	The aim of this section is to illustrate how the Systems Theory can be applied within Project Management.		The aim of this section is to illustrate how the Systems Theory can be applied within Project Management.


	===Elements of a system===		===Elements of a system===
Line 89:		Line 93:


	::*'''Relationships''': All the objects within a system have relationships with other objects in the system, and in open systems, the system itself will have relationships with other systems<ref name=guide />. The figure illustrates the relationship between deliverables and ~~validate~~ deliverables in a Quality Control Performance.		::*'''Relationships''': All the objects within a system have relationships with other objects in the system, and in open systems, the system itself will have relationships with other systems<ref name=guide />. The figure illustrates the relationship between deliverables and validated deliverables in a Quality Control Performance.

	[[File:Systems-thinking-d-5.jpg‎\|thumb\|center\|upright=3\|Figure 4: Relationships in a Quality Control System, picture by https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-managers-guide-to-systems-thinking-part-1.php]]		[[File:Systems-thinking-d-5.jpg‎\|thumb\|center\|upright=3\|Figure 4: Relationships in a Quality Control System, picture by https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-managers-guide-to-systems-thinking-part-1.php]]
Line 158:		Line 162:

	When analysing causal loops it is needed to understand the concept of '''Behaviour Over Time (BOT)'''<ref group="Glossary"> '''Behaviour Over Time (BOT):''' Is a simple tool that can help people focus on patterns of change over time rather than on isolated events.</ref>. BOT graphs, in fact, help to understand the actual project behaviour and through this to predict its future behaviour<ref name=pmi />. By reinforcing and balancing processes over time they explore systems behaviours<ref name=apm />. These type of graphs build, in this way, a learning structure that is useful either for understanding the development of the project itself and for future projects.		When analysing causal loops it is needed to understand the concept of '''Behaviour Over Time (BOT)'''<ref group="Glossary"> '''Behaviour Over Time (BOT):''' Is a simple tool that can help people focus on patterns of change over time rather than on isolated events.</ref>. BOT graphs, in fact, help to understand the actual project behaviour and through this to predict its future behaviour<ref name=pmi />. By reinforcing and balancing processes over time they explore systems behaviours<ref name=apm />. These type of graphs build, in this way, a learning structure that is useful either for understanding the development of the project itself and for future projects.


	===Levels of thinking and System Archetypes===		===Levels of thinking and System Archetypes===
Line 178:		Line 183:
	The list has been done by combining the system archetypes provided by the articles of Project Smarts and of the already mentioned PMI.		The list has been done by combining the system archetypes provided by the articles of Project Smarts and of the already mentioned PMI.
	System archetypes are particularly useful in problem-solving. Being a classification of systems behaviour, they provide a relatively easy tool to spot and forecast behaviour and develop a response plan for instituting changes to meet objectives.		System archetypes are particularly useful in problem-solving. Being a classification of systems behaviour, they provide a relatively easy tool to spot and forecast behaviour and develop a response plan for instituting changes to meet objectives.


	==Limitations==		==Limitations==

	===The limits of Systems Theory===		===The limits of Systems Theory===
	Through the article, it has emerged that the main limit related to the System Theory concerns with its need to be used always as a complement to other theories like the linear theory or the top-down approach. Thus, it is not self-sufficient for understanding and dealing with projects complexity.		Through the article, it has emerged that the main limit related to the System Theory concerns with its need to be used always as a complement to other theories like the linear theory or the top-down approach. Thus, it is not self-sufficient for understanding and dealing with projects complexity.
Line 188:		Line 195:

	Last but not least Systems Theory, as it has been affirmed before in the article, can not be applied to closed systems.		Last but not least Systems Theory, as it has been affirmed before in the article, can not be applied to closed systems.


	===The limits of the article===		===The limits of the article===

	The main limitation of the article, instead, concerns with the unavailable and not always consistent information about Systems Theory. The article is the result of different researches combined together in order to highlight the common points and give a logical and coherent understanding of the concept.		The main limitation of the article, instead, concerns with the unavailable and not always consistent information about Systems Theory. The article is the result of different researches combined together in order to highlight the common points and give a logical and coherent understanding of the concept.
	Moreover, it has been not feasible and it would have been out of purpose to explore all the tools and techniques that can be applied in Systems Theory, for this reason, further readings about the tools and techniques mentioned in this article are suggested.		Moreover, it has been not feasible and it would have been out of purpose to explore all the tools and techniques that can be applied in Systems Theory, for this reason, further readings about the tools and techniques mentioned in this article are suggested.

Costanza Sesti: /* Levels of thinking and System Archetypes */

2019-03-04T21:47:43Z

Levels of thinking and System Archetypes

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:47, 4 March 2019
Line 166:		Line 166:


	''“System archetypes are one class of tools that capture ‘common stories’ in systems thinking—dynamic phenomena that occur repeatedly in diverse		''“System archetypes are one class of tools that capture ‘common stories’ in systems thinking—dynamic''
	settings<ref name=pmi />.”''		''phenomena that occur repeatedly in diverse settings<ref name=pmi />.”''

	There are several types of system archetypes but in projects the most common are:		There are several types of system archetypes but in projects the most common are:
Line 178:		Line 178:
	The list has been done by combining the system archetypes provided by the articles of Project Smarts and of the already mentioned PMI.		The list has been done by combining the system archetypes provided by the articles of Project Smarts and of the already mentioned PMI.
	System archetypes are particularly useful in problem-solving. Being a classification of systems behaviour, they provide a relatively easy tool to spot and forecast behaviour and develop a response plan for instituting changes to meet objectives.		System archetypes are particularly useful in problem-solving. Being a classification of systems behaviour, they provide a relatively easy tool to spot and forecast behaviour and develop a response plan for instituting changes to meet objectives.


	==Limitations==		==Limitations==

Costanza Sesti: /* Introduction */

2019-03-04T21:44:03Z

Introduction

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:44, 4 March 2019
Line 16:		Line 16:
	An '''engineering system''' is defined as:		An '''engineering system''' is defined as:

	''“A class of systems characterized by a high degree of technical complexity, social intricacy, and elaborate processes, aimed at fulfilling important''		''“A class of systems characterized by a high degree of technical complexity, social intricacy,''
			''and elaborate processes, aimed at fulfilling important''
	''functions in society”''<ref name=engsys>Engineering Systems-Meeting Human Needs in a Complex Technological World, 2011, Olivier L. de Weck, Daniel Roos, and Christopher L. Magee, page 31</ref>		''functions in society”''<ref name=engsys>Engineering Systems-Meeting Human Needs in a Complex Technological World, 2011, Olivier L. de Weck, Daniel Roos, and Christopher L. Magee, page 31</ref>

Line 24:		Line 25:
	'''Systems Theory''' is as		'''Systems Theory''' is as

	''"a discipline for seeing wholes rather than parts, for seeing patterns of change rather than static snapshots, and for understanding the''		''"a discipline for seeing wholes rather than parts, for seeing patterns of change rather than static''
	''subtle interconnectedness that gives (living) systems their unique character"'' <ref name=senge>The Fifth Discipline: Art and Practice of the Learning Organization, 1990, Senge, New York, Doubleday</ref>.		'' snapshots, and for understanding the subtle interconnectedness that gives (living)''
			''systems their unique character"'' <ref name=senge>The Fifth Discipline: Art and Practice of the Learning Organization, 1990, Senge, New York, Doubleday</ref>.

Costanza Sesti: /* Annotated Bibliography */

2019-03-04T21:42:18Z

Annotated Bibliography

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:42, 4 March 2019
Line 201:		Line 201:
	'''Engineering Systems-Meeting Human Needs in a Complex Technological World, 2011, Olivier L. de Weck, Daniel Roos, and Christopher L. Magee''': The book provides insight about engineering systems and Systems Theory in engineering.		'''Engineering Systems-Meeting Human Needs in a Complex Technological World, 2011, Olivier L. de Weck, Daniel Roos, and Christopher L. Magee''': The book provides insight about engineering systems and Systems Theory in engineering.

	'''		'''ISO 21500, Dansk Standard, 2012''': The ISO guidelines about Project Management provide the basis for developing concepts as ''System'' and ''Systems Theory'' in relation to projects.

Costanza Sesti: /* Annotated Bibliography */

2019-03-04T21:37:16Z

Annotated Bibliography

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:37, 4 March 2019
Line 199:		Line 199:

	==Annotated Bibliography==		==Annotated Bibliography==
			'''Engineering Systems-Meeting Human Needs in a Complex Technological World, 2011, Olivier L. de Weck, Daniel Roos, and Christopher L. Magee''': The book provides insight about engineering systems and Systems Theory in engineering.

			'''

Costanza Sesti: /* References */

2019-03-04T21:25:21Z

References

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:25, 4 March 2019
Line 197:		Line 197:
	==References==		==References==
	<references />		<references />

			==Annotated Bibliography==

Costanza Sesti at 21:12, 4 March 2019

2019-03-04T21:12:25Z

Costanza Sesti: /* Annotated bibliography */

2019-03-04T21:10:50Z

Annotated bibliography

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:10, 4 March 2019
Line 188:		Line 188:
	==References==		==References==
	<references />		<references />

	~~==Annotated bibliography==~~

Costanza Sesti: /* Levels of thinking and System Archetypes */

2019-03-04T21:05:51Z

Levels of thinking and System Archetypes

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:05, 4 March 2019
Line 161:		Line 161:
	There are several types of system archetypes but in projects the most common are:		There are several types of system archetypes but in projects the most common are:
	*'''Influencing Change''':		*'''Influencing Change''':
	::-''Tragedy of the Commons'': occurs when only a finite amount of resources are available that are allocated on a first-come, first-serve basis. As long as the resources are adequate, all parties are successful, but as the resource get scarcer, the allocation is often based on who figures out how to work the system best<ref name=guide />.		::-''Tragedy of the Commons'': occurs when only a finite amount of resources are available that are allocated on a first-come, first-serve basis. As long as the resources are adequate, all parties are successful, but as the resource get scarcer, the allocation is often based on who figures out how to work the system best<ref name=guide2>A Project Manager's guide to System Thinking: part 2,J. Alex Sherrer, July 2010,</ref>.
	*'''Problem Solving''':		*'''Problem Solving''':
	::-''Fixes that Fail'': results in a problem that keeps resurfacing after it appeared to be solved. This is normally due to unintended consequences of the solution that undermining the results<ref name=~~guide~~ />.;		::-''Fixes that Fail'': results in a problem that keeps resurfacing after it appeared to be solved. This is normally due to unintended consequences of the solution that undermining the results<ref name=guide2 />.;
	::-''Shifting the Burden'': results in fixes that only exasperate the core problem over time. It's caused by focusing on a symptomatic, short-term solution rather than addressing the root cause<ref name=~~guide~~ />.		::-''Shifting the Burden'': results in fixes that only exasperate the core problem over time. It's caused by focusing on a symptomatic, short-term solution rather than addressing the root cause<ref name=guide2 />.

	The list has been done by combining the system archetypes provided by the articles of Project Smarts and of the already mentioned PMI.		The list has been done by combining the system archetypes provided by the articles of Project Smarts and of the already mentioned PMI.

Costanza Sesti: /* System Properties */

2019-03-04T21:02:45Z

System Properties

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:02, 4 March 2019
Line 40:		Line 40:
	===System Properties===		===System Properties===
	*'''Equilibrium-seeking'''		*'''Equilibrium-seeking'''
	All systems have an ideal state of equilibrium based on current conditions, object values, environmental influences and relationships. Their characteristic is to always try to self-correct themselves each time they are deviating from their equilibrium even if system' ideal state does not match the desired ideal state. Consequently, systems far from their state of equilibrium have the tendency to be more chaotic and unpredictable that systems close to their ideal state which tend to be more predictable and stabler<ref name=guide>A Project Manager's guide to System Thinking: part 1,J. Alex Sherrer, July 2010</ref>.		All systems have an ideal state of equilibrium based on current conditions, object values, environmental influences and relationships. Their characteristic is to always try to self-correct themselves each time they are deviating from their equilibrium even if system' ideal state does not match the desired ideal state. Consequently, systems far from their state of equilibrium have the tendency to be more chaotic and unpredictable that systems close to their ideal state which tend to be more predictable and stabler<ref name=guide>A Project Manager's guide to System Thinking: part 1,J. Alex Sherrer, July 2010,</ref>.


Line 57:		Line 57:
	*'''System Hierarchy'''		*'''System Hierarchy'''
	To conclude, systems are organized by a hierarchy which is related to the vitality, survivability, and purpose of a system. By understanding the hierarchy it is possible to learn internally and externally systems interconnections<ref name=pmi />.		To conclude, systems are organized by a hierarchy which is related to the vitality, survivability, and purpose of a system. By understanding the hierarchy it is possible to learn internally and externally systems interconnections<ref name=pmi />.


	===Systems Theory in Project Management===		===Systems Theory in Project Management===

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:12, 4 March 2019
Line 69:		Line 69:
	It is worth to remark that Systems Theory does not aim to substitute the traditional top-down thinking but rather complement it. Systems thinking, in fact, could not work without understanding before the system in all its parts, but, at the same time, it enables a more flexible approach which allows deviations from the project plan that proves to be very useful when dealing with projects with high degree of complexity. In addition, it encourages communications through boundaries and innovations providing project managers with skills that can help them handling complexities rather than limit their work to track the progress<ref name=apm />. Thus, systems thinking can help in raising the awareness of wider business objectives and in designing better products or services.		It is worth to remark that Systems Theory does not aim to substitute the traditional top-down thinking but rather complement it. Systems thinking, in fact, could not work without understanding before the system in all its parts, but, at the same time, it enables a more flexible approach which allows deviations from the project plan that proves to be very useful when dealing with projects with high degree of complexity. In addition, it encourages communications through boundaries and innovations providing project managers with skills that can help them handling complexities rather than limit their work to track the progress<ref name=apm />. Thus, systems thinking can help in raising the awareness of wider business objectives and in designing better products or services.
	Lastly, Systems Theory encourages to think by alternatives and options, taking into consideration variants of principles, concepts, and detail concepts<ref name=lecture>DTU Management Engineering, Engineering Systems Group, System-Oriented Problem Solving, Josef Oehmen, Spring 2019</ref>.		Lastly, Systems Theory encourages to think by alternatives and options, taking into consideration variants of principles, concepts, and detail concepts<ref name=lecture>DTU Management Engineering, Engineering Systems Group, System-Oriented Problem Solving, Josef Oehmen, Spring 2019</ref>.



	==Applications==		==Applications==
Line 78:		Line 80:

	[[File:Systems-thinking-d-3.jpg‎\|thumb\|center\|upright=3\|Figure 2: Objectives in a Quality Control System, picture by https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-managers-guide-to-systems-thinking-part-1.php]]		[[File:Systems-thinking-d-3.jpg‎\|thumb\|center\|upright=3\|Figure 2: Objectives in a Quality Control System, picture by https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-managers-guide-to-systems-thinking-part-1.php]]


	::*'''Attributes''': These are the properties and qualities of a system, which may be measurements of effects or behaviours at a point in time<ref name=guide />. The previous example continues with a list of attributes for the same system.		::*'''Attributes''': These are the properties and qualities of a system, which may be measurements of effects or behaviours at a point in time<ref name=guide />. The previous example continues with a list of attributes for the same system.

	[[File:Systems-thinking-d-4.jpg‎\|thumb\|center\|upright=3\|Figure 3: Attributes in a Quality Control System, picture by https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-managers-guide-to-systems-thinking-part-1.php]]		[[File:Systems-thinking-d-4.jpg‎\|thumb\|center\|upright=3\|Figure 3: Attributes in a Quality Control System, picture by https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-managers-guide-to-systems-thinking-part-1.php]]


	::*'''Relationships''': All the objects within a system have relationships with other objects in the system, and in open systems, the system itself will have relationships with other systems<ref name=guide />. The figure illustrates the relationship between deliverables and validate deliverables in a Quality Control Performance.		::*'''Relationships''': All the objects within a system have relationships with other objects in the system, and in open systems, the system itself will have relationships with other systems<ref name=guide />. The figure illustrates the relationship between deliverables and validate deliverables in a Quality Control Performance.

	[[File:Systems-thinking-d-5.jpg‎\|thumb\|center\|upright=3\|Figure 4: Relationships in a Quality Control System, picture by https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-managers-guide-to-systems-thinking-part-1.php]]		[[File:Systems-thinking-d-5.jpg‎\|thumb\|center\|upright=3\|Figure 4: Relationships in a Quality Control System, picture by https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-managers-guide-to-systems-thinking-part-1.php]]


	::*'''Boundaries''': A system is restricted by a boundary. In an open system, this is a permeable boundary since information, energy, or matter is exchanged with and received from outside, but in a closed system, its boundary can't be penetrated<ref name=guide />. Following the example types of Boundaries for a Quality Control system could be: Plan Quality, Perform Quality Control and Verify Scope.		::*'''Boundaries''': A system is restricted by a boundary. In an open system, this is a permeable boundary since information, energy, or matter is exchanged with and received from outside, but in a closed system, its boundary can't be penetrated<ref name=guide />. Following the example types of Boundaries for a Quality Control system could be: Plan Quality, Perform Quality Control and Verify Scope.

	[[File:Systems-thinking-d-6.jpg‎\|thumb\|center\|upright=3\|Figure 5: Boundaries in a Quality Control System, picture by https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-managers-guide-to-systems-thinking-part-1.php]]		[[File:Systems-thinking-d-6.jpg‎\|thumb\|center\|upright=3\|Figure 5: Boundaries in a Quality Control System, picture by https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-managers-guide-to-systems-thinking-part-1.php]]


	::*'''Environmental Influences''': All systems, even closed systems, exist in larger environments. Open systems exert influences on the external environments and are themselves influenced by their environments<ref name=guide />. Figure 6 shows as Environmental Influences the Performing Organization and the Customer's Organization.		::*'''Environmental Influences''': All systems, even closed systems, exist in larger environments. Open systems exert influences on the external environments and are themselves influenced by their environments<ref name=guide />. Figure 6 shows as Environmental Influences the Performing Organization and the Customer's Organization.
Line 97:		Line 103:

	The interactions of all these elements make the project not only complex and dynamic but also unique.		The interactions of all these elements make the project not only complex and dynamic but also unique.


	===Systems Theory: Tools&Techniques===		===Systems Theory: Tools&Techniques===
Line 132:		Line 139:

	In the following sections, the applications of two tools considered fundamental when approaching the Systems Theory are explained.		In the following sections, the applications of two tools considered fundamental when approaching the Systems Theory are explained.


	===CLD in Project Management===		===CLD in Project Management===
Line 168:		Line 176:
	The list has been done by combining the system archetypes provided by the articles of Project Smarts and of the already mentioned PMI.		The list has been done by combining the system archetypes provided by the articles of Project Smarts and of the already mentioned PMI.
	System archetypes are particularly useful in problem-solving. Being a classification of systems behaviour, they provide a relatively easy tool to spot and forecast behaviour and develop a response plan for instituting changes to meet objectives.		System archetypes are particularly useful in problem-solving. Being a classification of systems behaviour, they provide a relatively easy tool to spot and forecast behaviour and develop a response plan for instituting changes to meet objectives.


	==Limitations==		==Limitations==