Stress - Revision history

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	<ref name="Raver"> Raver, J. L., & Nishii, L. H. (2010). Once, twice, or three times as harmful? Ethnic harassment, gender		<ref name="Raver"> Raver, J. L., & Nishii, L. H. (2010). Once, twice, or three times as harmful? Ethnic harassment, gender
	harassment, and generalized workplace harassment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(2), 236–254. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0018377 </ref>		harassment, and generalized workplace harassment. ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 95(2), 236–254. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0018377 </ref>

	<ref name="Schaubroeck"> Schaubroeck, J., Ganster, D. C., & Kemmerer, B. E. (1994). Job complexity, ‘type A’ behavior, and cardiovascular disorder: A prospective study. ''Academy of Management Journal'', 37, 426–439. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.2307/256837 </ref>		<ref name="Schaubroeck"> Schaubroeck, J., Ganster, D. C., & Kemmerer, B. E. (1994). Job complexity, ‘type A’ behavior, and cardiovascular disorder: A prospective study. ''Academy of Management Journal'', 37, 426–439. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.2307/256837 </ref>
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	<ref name="Ganster"> Ganster, D. C., Fox, M. L., & Dwyer, D. J. (2001). Explaining employees’ health care costs: A prospective examination of stressful job demands, personal control, and physiological reactivity. ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 86, 954–964. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.5.954 </ref>		<ref name="Ganster"> Ganster, D. C., Fox, M. L., & Dwyer, D. J. (2001). Explaining employees’ health care costs: A prospective examination of stressful job demands, personal control, and physiological reactivity. ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 86, 954–964. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.5.954 </ref>

	<ref name="Fenlason"> Fenlason, K. J., & Beehr, T. A. (1994). Social support and occupational stress: Effects of talking to others. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', 15, 157–175. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030150205 </ref>		<ref name="Fenlason"> Fenlason, K. J., & Beehr, T. A. (1994). Social support and occupational stress: Effects of talking to others. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', 15, 157–175. Retrieved March 11, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030150205 </ref>

	<ref name="Viswesvaran"> Viswesvaran, C., Sanchez, J. I., & Fisher, J. (1999). The role of social support in the process of work stress: A meta-analysis. ''Journal of Vocational Behavior'', 54, 314–334. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1998.1661 </ref>		<ref name="Viswesvaran"> Viswesvaran, C., Sanchez, J. I., & Fisher, J. (1999). The role of social support in the process of work stress: A meta-analysis. ''Journal of Vocational Behavior'', 54, 314–334. Retrieved March 11, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1998.1661 </ref>

	<ref name="Unden"> Unden, A. (1996). Social support at work and its relationship to absenteeism. ''Work & Stress'', 10, 46–61. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1080/02678379608256784 </ref>		<ref name="Unden"> Unden, A. (1996). Social support at work and its relationship to absenteeism. ''Work & Stress'', 10, 46–61. Retrieved March 11, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1080/02678379608256784 </ref>

			<ref name="Shahani"> Shahani, C., Weiner, R., & Streit, M. K. (1993). An investigation of the dispositional nature of the time management construct. ''Anxiety, Stress, and Coping'', 6, 231–243. Retrieved March 11, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1080/10615809308248382 </ref>

	<ref name="Shahani"> Shahani, C., Weiner, R., & Streit, M. K. (1993). An investigation of the dispositional nature of the time management construct. ''Anxiety, Stress, and Coping'', 6, 231–243. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1080/10615809308248382 </ref>		<ref name="Fritz"> Fritz, C., Ellis, A. M., Demsky, C. A., Lin, B. C., & Guros, F. (2013). Embracing work breaks: Recovering from work stress. ''Organizational Dynamics'', 42, 274–280. Retrieved March 12, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2013.07.005 </ref>

	<ref name="Fritz"> Fritz, C., Ellis, A. M., Demsky, C. A., Lin, B. C., & Guros, F. (2013). Embracing work breaks: Recovering from work stress. ''Organizational Dynamics'', 42, 274–280. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2013.07.005 </ref>

	<ref name="Lazarus"> Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Psychological stress in the workplace. ''Journal of Social Behavior and Personality'', 6, 1–13. </ref>		<ref name="Lazarus"> Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Psychological stress in the workplace. ''Journal of Social Behavior and Personality'', 6, 1–13. </ref>

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	===Individual strategies===		===Individual strategies===

	~~Strategies~~ used by individual employees so personal stress can be reduced or eliminated.		Individual strategies are techniques used by individual employees so personal stress can be reduced or eliminated.

	Improvement of physical condition		Improvement of physical condition

S212566 at 19:06, 22 March 2022

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	===Organizational strategies===		===Organizational strategies===

	Organizational strategies are ~~implemented~~ techniques and programs by organizations which have the purpose to reduce stress levels for groups of employees or the organization as a whole. Like stated above, stress can come from many different organizational sources and because of that, there are many things that organizations can do to reduce situational stressors in the workplace. Among these strategies are the following:		Organizational strategies are techniques and programs that are implemented by organizations which have the purpose to reduce stress levels for groups of employees or the organization as a whole. Like stated above, stress can come from many different organizational sources and because of that, there are many things that organizations can do to reduce situational stressors in the workplace. Among these strategies are the following:

	Improve the person–job fit		Improve the person–job fit

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	===Organizational sources===		===Organizational sources===
	Stressors in the work environment cause a significant amount of worker stress. The organizational sources of stress can be split into two subcategories. First, the physical and psychological demands of performing a job, the work tasks themselves~~, can sometimes cause organizational stress~~, such as work overload and underutilization. Secondly, work roles can also cause organizational stress because work organizations are complicated social systems in which a worker must engage with a large number of people. Management actions can often alleviate these two types of situational stressors, work task and work role stressors. Some organizational sources of stress are:		Stressors in the work environment cause a significant amount of worker stress. The organizational sources of stress can be split into two subcategories. First, the physical and psychological demands of performing a job, the work tasks themselves, such as work overload and underutilization. Secondly, work roles can also cause organizational stress because work organizations are complicated social systems in which a worker must engage with a large number of people. Management actions can often alleviate these two types of situational stressors, work task and work role stressors. Some organizational sources of stress are:

	*Work overload: A common source of stress caused by a job that necessitates excessive speed, output, or concentration.		*Work overload: A common source of stress caused by a job that necessitates excessive speed, output, or concentration.

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	To begin with, it is important to recognize that a project is a temporary organization formed to deliver one or more business products in accordance with an agreed-upon business case. One characteristic of a project work that distinguishes it from business as usual is that a project involves a group of people with various expertise working together (temporarily) to implement a change that will affect people outside the team. Projects frequently cross the normal functional divisions within an organization and, in some cases, span entire organizations. This frequently results in stresses and strains both within and between organizations. <ref name="Managing"/>		To begin with, it is important to recognize that a project is a temporary organization formed to deliver one or more business products in accordance with an agreed-upon business case. One characteristic of a project work that distinguishes it from business as usual is that a project involves a group of people with various expertise working together (temporarily) to implement a change that will affect people outside the team. Projects frequently cross the normal functional divisions within an organization and, in some cases, span entire organizations. This frequently results in stresses and strains both within and between organizations. <ref name="Managing"/>

	When stress causes mental strain, feelings of fatigue, anxiety, and/or depression an employees productivity and quality of work can be affected. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> ~~Thus~~, it is important for a project manager to show interest in worker stress and find ways to reduce it, since it can cause illness. <ref name="WSEH"/> Some of those stress-related illnesses are ulcers, hypertension, coronary heart disease, migraines, asthma attacks and colitis. Rates of absenteeism can increase if worker stress leads to stress-related illnesses. That is, if a job becomes too stressful, an employee quits and finds a less stressful position. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>		When stress causes mental strain, feelings of fatigue, anxiety, and/or depression an employees productivity and quality of work can be affected. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> So, it is important for a project manager to show interest in worker stress and find ways to reduce it, since it can cause illness. <ref name="WSEH"/> Some of those stress-related illnesses are ulcers, hypertension, coronary heart disease, migraines, asthma attacks and colitis. Rates of absenteeism can increase if worker stress leads to stress-related illnesses. That is, if a job becomes too stressful, an employee quits and finds a less stressful position. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>

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	The stress that occurs at work and affects work behaviour is called worker stress. Strategies used in dealing with stress in everyday life will not always work in dealing with worker stress. For example, some stressors can be eased through organizational changes and thus are under management's control, whereas others must be addressed by the individual worker. Furthermore, some of the techniques for dealing with stress in the workplace are simply good management and human resource practices, not special stress reduction techniques. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> A project manager must be knowledgeable about stress in order to prevent a problem from spreading to the subordinate workers. <ref name="CPMArticle"/> Companies and managers are increasingly concerned about the effects of stress on employees and important "bottom-line" variables such as productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>		The stress that occurs at work and affects work behaviour is called worker stress. Strategies used in dealing with stress in everyday life will not always work in dealing with worker stress. For example, some stressors can be eased through organizational changes and thus are under management's control, whereas others must be addressed by the individual worker. Furthermore, some of the techniques for dealing with stress in the workplace are simply good management and human resource practices, not special stress reduction techniques. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> A project manager must be knowledgeable about stress in order to prevent a problem from spreading to the subordinate workers. <ref name="CPMArticle"/> Companies and managers are increasingly concerned about the effects of stress on employees and important "bottom-line" variables such as productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>

	Stress can have an impact on critical work outcomes and is believed to reduce work performance. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> The relationships between work stress and the key bottom-line variables, on the other hand, are quite complex. It has been proposed, for example, that the relationship between stress and performance often takes the shape of an inverted U (see Figure 1), rather than being direct and linear, with higher stress leading to lower performance. In other words, extremely low and extremely high levels of stress are associated with poor work performance, whereas ~~low to~~ moderate levels of stress appear to be associated with better performance. <ref name="Cohen"/>		Stress can have an impact on critical work outcomes and is believed to reduce work performance. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> The relationships between work stress and the key bottom-line variables, on the other hand, are quite complex. It has been proposed, for example, that the relationship between stress and performance often takes the shape of an inverted U (see Figure 1), rather than being direct and linear, with higher stress leading to lower performance. In other words, extremely low and extremely high levels of stress are associated with poor work performance, whereas moderate levels of stress appear to be associated with better performance. <ref name="Cohen"/>
	For instance, there is evidence that serious, acute stress impairs worker performance because stress interferes with mental processing. <ref name="Ellis"/>		For instance, there is evidence that serious, acute stress impairs worker performance because stress interferes with mental processing. <ref name="Ellis"/>
	On the other hand, a lack of stress indicates that employees are not being challenged or motivated. <ref name="LePine"/>		On the other hand, a lack of stress indicates that employees are not being challenged or motivated. <ref name="LePine"/>

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	<ref name="IIOPBook"/> Negative stress is known as distress, and positive stress is known as eustress. <ref name="SOBook"/>		<ref name="IIOPBook"/> Negative stress is known as distress, and positive stress is known as eustress. <ref name="SOBook"/>

	People are likely familiar with both physiological and psycological reactions to stress. Signs of arousal, such as increased heart rates and respiratory rates, elevated blood pressure, and sweating, are all physiological responses to stress. Anxiety, fear, frustration, and despair are all psychological reactions to distress ~~(negative stress)~~, as are appraising or evaluating the stressful event and its impact, thinking about the stressful experience, and mentally preparing to take steps to try to deal with the stress. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>		People are likely familiar with both physiological and psycological reactions to stress. Signs of arousal, such as increased heart rates and respiratory rates, elevated blood pressure, and sweating, are all physiological responses to stress. Anxiety, fear, frustration, and despair are all psychological reactions to distress, as are appraising or evaluating the stressful event and its impact, thinking about the stressful experience, and mentally preparing to take steps to try to deal with the stress. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>

	In order for a person to experience stress, two cognitive events must occur. The first is the primary appraisal, which occurs when a person perceives an event to be a threat to his or her personal goals. The second cognitive event is called secondary appraisal and is when a person concludes that he or she lacks the resources to deal with the demands of the threatening event. Stress is not evoked if either of these appraisals is absent. <ref name="EABook"/>		In order for a person to experience stress, two cognitive events must occur. The first is the primary appraisal, which occurs when a person perceives an event to be a threat to his or her personal goals. The second cognitive event is called secondary appraisal and is when a person concludes that he or she lacks the resources to deal with the demands of the threatening event. Stress is not evoked if either of these appraisals is absent. <ref name="EABook"/>

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	== Abstract ==		== Abstract ==

	Stress is a feeling of being overwhelmed by events that you cannot seem to control. Stressors are events that cause stress, which can be extreme, uncontrollable and can often produce opposing tendencies. There are four varieties of stress, acute stress, episodic acute stress, traumatic stress and chronic stress. <ref name="PPBook"/> It should not be assumed that stress is always a bad thing. It keeps people motivated and can provide a great sense of achievement once the stressful situation has passed. However, too much stress can have negative impacts. Some people appear to be better at overcoming stressful events, or to view such events as challenges rather than as sources of stress. <ref name="Ara"/> Worker stress refers to stress that occurs at work and affects work behavior. Strategies for dealing with stress in everyday life may not always be effective in dealing with workplace stress. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> A project manager must have knowledge about health and wellbeing at workplace such as stress in order to prevent it from becoming a major outbreak to the employees. <ref name="CPMArticle"/> Workplace stress that project managers need to deal with can be caused by both organizational and individual factors. The stressors in the work environment are the organizational sources, such as demands of performing a job, disagreements with coworkers, and organizational changes. Individual sources are the characteristics of the employee. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> Many techniques can help to manage stress at work and they can be divided into individual strategies and organizational strategies. Organizational strategies are implemented by organizations or managers with the goal to reduce stress for people at the workplace. Individual strategies are used by employees to reduce or eliminate personal stress. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>		Stress is a feeling of being overwhelmed by events that you cannot seem to control. Stressors are events that cause stress, which can be extreme, uncontrollable and can often produce opposing tendencies. There are four varieties of stress, acute stress, episodic acute stress, traumatic stress and chronic stress. <ref name="PPBook"/> It should not be assumed that stress is always a bad thing. It keeps people motivated and can provide a great sense of achievement once the stressful situation has passed. However, too much stress can have negative impacts. Some people appear to be better at overcoming stressful events, or to view such events as challenges rather than as sources of stress. <ref name="Ara"/> Worker stress refers to stress that occurs at work and affects work behavior. Strategies for dealing with stress in everyday life may not always be effective in dealing with workplace stress. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> A project manager must have knowledge about health and wellbeing at workplace such as stress in order to prevent it from becoming a major outbreak to the employees. <ref name="CPMArticle"/> Workplace stress that project managers need to deal with can be caused by both organizational and individual factors. The stressors in the work environment are the organizational sources, such as demands of performing a job, disagreements with coworkers, and organizational changes. Individual sources are the characteristics of the employee. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> Many techniques can help to manage stress at work and they can be divided into individual strategies and organizational strategies. Organizational strategies are implemented by organizations or managers with the goal to reduce stress for people at the workplace or in a specific project. Individual strategies are used by employees to reduce or eliminate personal stress. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>

S212566 at 21:56, 21 March 2022

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	The stress that occurs at work and affects work behaviour is called worker stress. Strategies used in dealing with stress in everyday life will not always work in dealing with worker stress. For example, some stressors can be eased through organizational changes and thus are under management's control, whereas others must be addressed by the individual worker. Furthermore, some of the techniques for dealing with stress in the workplace are simply good management and human resource practices, not special stress reduction techniques. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> A project manager must be knowledgeable about stress in order to prevent a problem from spreading to the subordinate workers. <ref name="CPMArticle"/> Companies and managers are increasingly concerned about the effects of stress on employees and important "bottom-line" variables such as productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>		The stress that occurs at work and affects work behaviour is called worker stress. Strategies used in dealing with stress in everyday life will not always work in dealing with worker stress. For example, some stressors can be eased through organizational changes and thus are under management's control, whereas others must be addressed by the individual worker. Furthermore, some of the techniques for dealing with stress in the workplace are simply good management and human resource practices, not special stress reduction techniques. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> A project manager must be knowledgeable about stress in order to prevent a problem from spreading to the subordinate workers. <ref name="CPMArticle"/> Companies and managers are increasingly concerned about the effects of stress on employees and important "bottom-line" variables such as productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>

	Stress can have an impact on critical work outcomes and is believed to reduce work performance. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> The relationships between work stress and the key bottom-line variables, on the other hand, are quite complex. It has been proposed, for example, that the relationship between stress and performance often takes the shape of an inverted U ( see Figure X), rather than being direct and linear, with higher stress leading to lower performance. In other words, extremely low and extremely high levels of stress are associated with poor work performance, whereas low to moderate levels of stress appear to be associated with better performance. <ref name="Cohen"/>		Stress can have an impact on critical work outcomes and is believed to reduce work performance. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> The relationships between work stress and the key bottom-line variables, on the other hand, are quite complex. It has been proposed, for example, that the relationship between stress and performance often takes the shape of an inverted U (see Figure 1), rather than being direct and linear, with higher stress leading to lower performance. In other words, extremely low and extremely high levels of stress are associated with poor work performance, whereas low to moderate levels of stress appear to be associated with better performance. <ref name="Cohen"/>
	For instance, there is evidence that serious, acute stress impairs worker performance because stress interferes with mental processing. <ref name="Ellis"/>		For instance, there is evidence that serious, acute stress impairs worker performance because stress interferes with mental processing. <ref name="Ellis"/>
	On the other hand, a lack of stress indicates that employees are not being challenged or motivated. <ref name="LePine"/>		On the other hand, a lack of stress indicates that employees are not being challenged or motivated. <ref name="LePine"/>

S212566 at 21:47, 21 March 2022

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	== Worker stress ==		== Worker stress ==

	[[File:PerformanceStressRelationship.png\|400px\|thumb\|right\|alt=Relationship between performance and stress.\|'''Figure 1: '''Relationship between performance and stress. ''Adapted from x (~~2006~~)~~, page 5~~. '' <ref name="Cohen"/>]]		[[File:PerformanceStressRelationship.png\|400px\|thumb\|right\|alt=Relationship between performance and stress.\|'''Figure 1: '''Relationship between performance and stress. ''Adapted from Cohen (1980). '' <ref name="Cohen"/>]]

	The stress that occurs at work and affects work behaviour is called worker stress. Strategies used in dealing with stress in everyday life will not always work in dealing with worker stress. For example, some stressors can be eased through organizational changes and thus are under management's control, whereas others must be addressed by the individual worker. Furthermore, some of the techniques for dealing with stress in the workplace are simply good management and human resource practices, not special stress reduction techniques. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> A project manager must be knowledgeable about stress in order to prevent a problem from spreading to the subordinate workers. <ref name="CPMArticle"/> Companies and managers are increasingly concerned about the effects of stress on employees and important "bottom-line" variables such as productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>		The stress that occurs at work and affects work behaviour is called worker stress. Strategies used in dealing with stress in everyday life will not always work in dealing with worker stress. For example, some stressors can be eased through organizational changes and thus are under management's control, whereas others must be addressed by the individual worker. Furthermore, some of the techniques for dealing with stress in the workplace are simply good management and human resource practices, not special stress reduction techniques. <ref name="IIOPBook"/> A project manager must be knowledgeable about stress in order to prevent a problem from spreading to the subordinate workers. <ref name="CPMArticle"/> Companies and managers are increasingly concerned about the effects of stress on employees and important "bottom-line" variables such as productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. <ref name="IIOPBook"/>