Social loafing and expectancy-value theory - Revision history

S183655: /* Minimizing cost of contributions */

2023-05-09T13:03:07Z

Minimizing cost of contributions

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	Since the outcome value also represents the subtracted contribution costs, it is obvious that a lowering of contribution costs heightens the outcome value and thereby the effort motivation. Of course, contribution costs can be material and tangible but for working in groups, in many cases, it is a psychological cost. Essentially, if an individual feels that they are exuding great effort and that team members are “free-riding” of their effort, they might lower their own effort<ref name="KarauWilliams1997">[''Motivation losses in small groups: A social dilemma analysis.''] Kerr, N. L. , 1983, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 819-828.</ref>. Three methods that can help a team leader reduce these psychological costs are:		Since the outcome value also represents the subtracted contribution costs, it is obvious that a lowering of contribution costs heightens the outcome value and thereby the effort motivation. Of course, contribution costs can be material and tangible but for working in groups, in many cases, it is a psychological cost. Essentially, if an individual feels that they are exuding great effort and that team members are “free-riding” of their effort, they might lower their own effort<ref name="KarauWilliams1997">[''Motivation losses in small groups: A social dilemma analysis.''] Kerr, N. L. , 1983, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 819-828.</ref>. Three methods that can help a team leader reduce these psychological costs are:

	1. Divide and conquer.		1. '''Divide and conquer.'''
	This method is perhaps the most obvious and simple. If the task of a team is divided into smaller tasks and delegated to individuals, there is no longer an opportunity for loafing.		This method is perhaps the most obvious and simple. If the task of a team is divided into smaller tasks and delegated to individuals, there is no longer an opportunity for loafing.

	2. Convince team members that efforts are equal.		2. '''Convince team members that efforts are equal.'''
	Another way of lowering psychological cost is to convince individuals that all team members are working with equal effort. By doing so, the individual members potential fear of pulling the load is reduced. In fact, studies show, that individual efforts heighten, when told that other team members are exuding a similar effort, in order to not end up free-riding others<ref name="HarkinsJackson"></ref> .		Another way of lowering psychological cost is to convince individuals that all team members are working with equal effort. By doing so, the individual members potential fear of pulling the load is reduced. In fact, studies show, that individual efforts heighten, when told that other team members are exuding a similar effort, in order to not end up free-riding others<ref name="HarkinsJackson"></ref> .

	3. Punish loafers.		3. '''Punish loafers.'''
	The third method of lowering contribution cost is simply to evaluate individual performances and make sure that necessary steps are taken if a team member is not performing as intended. Although, it may not be necessary to actually evaluate and punish loafers, in many cases team members knowledge of such a procedure could be enough for performance to stay high.		The third method of lowering contribution cost is simply to evaluate individual performances and make sure that necessary steps are taken if a team member is not performing as intended. Although, it may not be necessary to actually evaluate and punish loafers, in many cases team members knowledge of such a procedure could be enough for performance to stay high.

S183655: /* A simple model for complex a matter */

2023-05-09T12:59:49Z

A simple model for complex a matter

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	These findings have however, been combated in later studies. In 1998 Charbonnier, et al. found that personality traits do not affect does not affect an individuals proneness to social loafing. In fact, quite the opposite is true. <ref name="Charbonnier">[''Social loafing and self-beliefs: People's collective effort depends on the extent to which they distinguish themselves as better than others''] Charbonnier, E., Huguet, P., Brauer, M., & Monteil, J.-M., 1998., Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 329–340 </ref>		These findings have however, been combated in later studies. In 1998 Charbonnier, et al. found that personality traits do not affect does not affect an individuals proneness to social loafing. In fact, quite the opposite is true. <ref name="Charbonnier">[''Social loafing and self-beliefs: People's collective effort depends on the extent to which they distinguish themselves as better than others''] Charbonnier, E., Huguet, P., Brauer, M., & Monteil, J.-M., 1998., Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 329–340 </ref>

	=== A simple model for complex a matter ===		=== A simple model for a complex matter ===
	From a more mathematical theoretical standpoint, some researchers argue that the definition of instrumentality as a probability, based on the factor ranging from -1 to 0, is faulty, and that is should be considered as a correlative value, thus ranging from -1 to 1. <ref name="Vroom"/> Besides this dispute, it is worth considering the accuracy of the model. Expectancy-value theory gives the impression that all three dimensions are equally important as they range from -1 to +1, however this probably rarely the case, and to get a precise indication of effort motivation, one would need to compare the weight of each dimension rigorously. But even then, what does the product of the equation mean? There is really no good answer, and so the relevance of the equation stems more from its categorization of elements and their relationship than it does from its product.		From a more mathematical theoretical standpoint, some researchers argue that the definition of instrumentality as a probability, based on the factor ranging from -1 to 0, is faulty, and that is should be considered as a correlative value, thus ranging from -1 to 1. <ref name="Vroom"/> Besides this dispute, it is worth considering the accuracy of the model. Expectancy-value theory gives the impression that all three dimensions are equally important as they range from -1 to +1, however this probably rarely the case, and to get a precise indication of effort motivation, one would need to compare the weight of each dimension rigorously. But even then, what does the product of the equation mean? There is really no good answer, and so the relevance of the equation stems more from its categorization of elements and their relationship than it does from its product.

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2023-05-09T12:39:02Z

Annotated Bibliography

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	:: Shepperd briefly introduces the terms social loafing and expectancy-value theory, explaining how expectancy-value theory can be used as a theoretical basis to understand social loafing and its causes. Shepperd then proceeds to explain the three factors expectancy, instrumentality and outcome value in depth, also addressing how potential problems affecting each factor can be mitigated.		:: Shepperd briefly introduces the terms social loafing and expectancy-value theory, explaining how expectancy-value theory can be used as a theoretical basis to understand social loafing and its causes. Shepperd then proceeds to explain the three factors expectancy, instrumentality and outcome value in depth, also addressing how potential problems affecting each factor can be mitigated.

			*'"Work and Motivation" Vroom, V.H. , 1964, New York: Wiley
	'"Work and Motivation" Vroom, V.H. , 1964, New York: Wiley

	:: A true landmark when published. In this book Victor Vroom compiles hundreds of studies on individual workplace behavior. Central to this article and expectancy-value theory are chapters 7 & 8, which deals with the role of motivation in job performance. Although old, this book brought forth an incredible amount of knowledge and has acted as a foundation for the field motivation ever since.		:: A true landmark when published. In this book Victor Vroom compiles hundreds of studies on individual workplace behavior. Central to this article and expectancy-value theory are chapters 7 & 8, which deals with the role of motivation in job performance. Although old, this book brought forth an incredible amount of knowledge and has acted as a foundation for the field motivation ever since.

S183655: /* Annotated Bibliography */

2023-05-09T12:38:50Z

Annotated Bibliography

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	:: Shepperd briefly introduces the terms social loafing and expectancy-value theory, explaining how expectancy-value theory can be used as a theoretical basis to understand social loafing and its causes. Shepperd then proceeds to explain the three factors expectancy, instrumentality and outcome value in depth, also addressing how potential problems affecting each factor can be mitigated.		:: Shepperd briefly introduces the terms social loafing and expectancy-value theory, explaining how expectancy-value theory can be used as a theoretical basis to understand social loafing and its causes. Shepperd then proceeds to explain the three factors expectancy, instrumentality and outcome value in depth, also addressing how potential problems affecting each factor can be mitigated.


			'"Work and Motivation" Vroom, V.H. , 1964, New York: Wiley

			:: A true landmark when published. In this book Victor Vroom compiles hundreds of studies on individual workplace behavior. Central to this article and expectancy-value theory are chapters 7 & 8, which deals with the role of motivation in job performance. Although old, this book brought forth an incredible amount of knowledge and has acted as a foundation for the field motivation ever since.

	== References ==		== References ==
	<references/>		<references/>

S183655: /* Incentives for individual performance */

2023-05-09T12:25:02Z

Incentives for individual performance

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	Internal incentives are perhaps not as commonly thought of as external incentives, but also play their part in an individual’s perception of outcome value. A study by Szymanski and Harkins in 1987 highlight that the opportunity to self-evaluate increased participants performance. This suggests that one way of providing internal individual incentive is to provide team members with the possibility to evaluate themselves. Another, perhaps more obvious, internal individual incentive is simply to work on intrinsically interesting tasks. Generally, people will work harder on tasks which satisfies the conditions of seeming meaningful or leading to a personally relevant outcome<ref name="Szymanski">[''Social loafing and self-evaluation with a social		Internal incentives are perhaps not as commonly thought of as external incentives, but also play their part in an individual’s perception of outcome value. A study by Szymanski and Harkins in 1987 highlight that the opportunity to self-evaluate increased participants performance. This suggests that one way of providing internal individual incentive is to provide team members with the possibility to evaluate themselves. Another, perhaps more obvious, internal individual incentive is simply to work on intrinsically interesting tasks. Generally, people will work harder on tasks which satisfies the conditions of seeming meaningful or leading to a personally relevant outcome<ref name="Szymanski">[''Social loafing and self-evaluation with a social
	standard.''] Szymanski, K., & Harkins, S. G. , 1987, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 891-897.</ref>.		standard.''] ,Szymanski, K., & Harkins, S. G. , 1987, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 891-897.</ref>.

	==== Incentives for group performance ====		==== Incentives for group performance ====

S183655: /* Abstract */

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Abstract

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	== Abstract ==		== Abstract ==
	The term social loafing refers to phenomenon of individuals not working or contributing to their full ability when working in a group <ref name="Shepperd, J.A. , 2001">[''Social loafing and expectancy-value theory''], Shepperd, J.A. , 2001, Multiple Perspectives on the Effects of Evaluation of Performance: Toward an Integration </ref>. This phenomenon can lead to a discrepancy between expected and actuals results of group work, since a team’s productivity does not match what would have been the combined individual effort. The phenomenon was first described in a summary by W. Moede in 1927 detailing rope-pulling experiments by French professor Max Ringelmann done in the late 1890s <ref name="Ringelmann">[''“Recherches sur les moteurs animés: Travail de l’homme” [Research on animate sources of power: The work of man]''] Ringelmann, M., 1913, Annales de l’Institut National Agronomique, 2nd series, vol 12, pages 1-40 </ref>. The term social loafing was later introduced to the phenomenon in 1979 by Bibb Latané et al.<ref name="Latané, B , 1979">[''Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(6), 822–832''] Latané, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. , 1979, </ref>. The term has since been widely used and subject to extensive research with over 100 studies examining the phenomenon, covering both laboratory experiments and field research<ref name="Karau, S. J">[''Social Loafing (and Facilitation)''] Karau, S. J. , 2012, </ref>. This has led to many more advanced theories of social loafing.		The term social loafing refers to phenomenon of individuals not working or contributing to their full ability when working in a group <ref name="Shepperd, J.A. , 2001">[''Social loafing and expectancy-value theory''] Shepperd, J.A. , 2001, Multiple Perspectives on the Effects of Evaluation of Performance: Toward an Integration </ref>. This phenomenon can lead to a discrepancy between expected and actuals results of group work, since a team’s productivity does not match what would have been the combined individual effort. The phenomenon was first described in a summary by W. Moede in 1927 detailing rope-pulling experiments by French professor Max Ringelmann done in the late 1890s <ref name="Ringelmann">[''“Recherches sur les moteurs animés: Travail de l’homme” [Research on animate sources of power: The work of man]''] Ringelmann, M., 1913, Annales de l’Institut National Agronomique, 2nd series, vol 12, pages 1-40 </ref>. The term social loafing was later introduced to the phenomenon in 1979 by Bibb Latané et al.<ref name="Latané, B , 1979">[''Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(6), 822–832''] Latané, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. , 1979, </ref>. The term has since been widely used and subject to extensive research with over 100 studies examining the phenomenon, covering both laboratory experiments and field research<ref name="Karau, S. J">[''Social Loafing (and Facilitation)''] Karau, S. J. , 2012, </ref>. This has led to many more advanced theories of social loafing.

	Looking at the phenomenon from a project management angle, team effectiveness is a major part of any project involving multiple people of actors working together and social loafing is a robust phenomenon with the potential of lowering effectiveness. Thus, social loafing should be accounted for, when managing projects.		Looking at the phenomenon from a project management angle, team effectiveness is a major part of any project involving multiple people of actors working together and social loafing is a robust phenomenon with the potential of lowering effectiveness. Thus, social loafing should be accounted for, when managing projects.

S183655: /* Minimizing cost of contributions */

2023-05-09T12:21:46Z

Minimizing cost of contributions

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	==== Minimizing cost of contributions ====		==== Minimizing cost of contributions ====
	Since the outcome value also represents the subtracted contribution costs, it is obvious that a lowering of contribution costs heightens the outcome value and thereby the effort motivation. Of course, contribution costs can be material and tangible but for working in groups, in many cases, it is a psychological cost. Essentially, if an individual feels that they are exuding great effort and that team members are “free-riding” of their effort, they might lower their own effort<ref name="KarauWilliams1997">[''Motivation losses in small groups: A social dilemma analysis.''] ,Kerr, N. L. , 1983, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 819-828.</ref>. Three methods that can help a team leader reduce these psychological costs are:		Since the outcome value also represents the subtracted contribution costs, it is obvious that a lowering of contribution costs heightens the outcome value and thereby the effort motivation. Of course, contribution costs can be material and tangible but for working in groups, in many cases, it is a psychological cost. Essentially, if an individual feels that they are exuding great effort and that team members are “free-riding” of their effort, they might lower their own effort<ref name="KarauWilliams1997">[''Motivation losses in small groups: A social dilemma analysis.''] Kerr, N. L. , 1983, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 819-828.</ref>. Three methods that can help a team leader reduce these psychological costs are:

	1. Divide and conquer.		1. Divide and conquer.

S183655: /* Incentives for individual performance */

2023-05-09T12:21:24Z

Incentives for individual performance

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:21, 9 May 2023
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	Internal incentives are perhaps not as commonly thought of as external incentives, but also play their part in an individual’s perception of outcome value. A study by Szymanski and Harkins in 1987 highlight that the opportunity to self-evaluate increased participants performance. This suggests that one way of providing internal individual incentive is to provide team members with the possibility to evaluate themselves. Another, perhaps more obvious, internal individual incentive is simply to work on intrinsically interesting tasks. Generally, people will work harder on tasks which satisfies the conditions of seeming meaningful or leading to a personally relevant outcome<ref name="Szymanski">[''Social loafing and self-evaluation with a social		Internal incentives are perhaps not as commonly thought of as external incentives, but also play their part in an individual’s perception of outcome value. A study by Szymanski and Harkins in 1987 highlight that the opportunity to self-evaluate increased participants performance. This suggests that one way of providing internal individual incentive is to provide team members with the possibility to evaluate themselves. Another, perhaps more obvious, internal individual incentive is simply to work on intrinsically interesting tasks. Generally, people will work harder on tasks which satisfies the conditions of seeming meaningful or leading to a personally relevant outcome<ref name="Szymanski">[''Social loafing and self-evaluation with a social
	standard.'']Szymanski, K., & Harkins, S. G. , 1987, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 891-897.</ref>.		standard.''] Szymanski, K., & Harkins, S. G. , 1987, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 891-897.</ref>.

	==== Incentives for group performance ====		==== Incentives for group performance ====

S183655: /* Incentives for individual performance */

2023-05-09T12:20:50Z

Incentives for individual performance

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:20, 9 May 2023
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	Internal incentives are perhaps not as commonly thought of as external incentives, but also play their part in an individual’s perception of outcome value. A study by Szymanski and Harkins in 1987 highlight that the opportunity to self-evaluate increased participants performance. This suggests that one way of providing internal individual incentive is to provide team members with the possibility to evaluate themselves. Another, perhaps more obvious, internal individual incentive is simply to work on intrinsically interesting tasks. Generally, people will work harder on tasks which satisfies the conditions of seeming meaningful or leading to a personally relevant outcome<ref name="Szymanski">[''Social loafing and self-evaluation with a social		Internal incentives are perhaps not as commonly thought of as external incentives, but also play their part in an individual’s perception of outcome value. A study by Szymanski and Harkins in 1987 highlight that the opportunity to self-evaluate increased participants performance. This suggests that one way of providing internal individual incentive is to provide team members with the possibility to evaluate themselves. Another, perhaps more obvious, internal individual incentive is simply to work on intrinsically interesting tasks. Generally, people will work harder on tasks which satisfies the conditions of seeming meaningful or leading to a personally relevant outcome<ref name="Szymanski">[''Social loafing and self-evaluation with a social
	standard.''] ,Szymanski, K., & Harkins, S. G. , 1987, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 891-897.</ref>.		standard.'']Szymanski, K., & Harkins, S. G. , 1987, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 891-897.</ref>.

	==== Incentives for group performance ====		==== Incentives for group performance ====

S183655: /* Big Idea */

2023-05-09T12:20:29Z

Big Idea

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	Since the introduction of the term social loafing, several theories have been developed in order to describe the underlying causes of the phenomenon. An interesting example of this is expectancy-value theory which pertains to effort – both individual and in group tasks.		Since the introduction of the term social loafing, several theories have been developed in order to describe the underlying causes of the phenomenon. An interesting example of this is expectancy-value theory which pertains to effort – both individual and in group tasks.
	Expectancy-value theory offers a way of quantifying a person’s motivation towards a given task – thereby also indicating a likelihood of social loafing. Following expectancy-value theory this measure of motivation is named effort motivation (EM) and given by the multiplication of three factors: Expectancy (E), Instrumentality (I) and Outcome value (OV), as given in the formula below <ref name="Vroom">[''Work and Motivation''] ''Vroom, V.H. , 1964, New York: Wiley'' </ref> <ref name="Karau">[''Social Loafing: A Meta-Analytic Review and Theoretical Integration Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 65, No. 4, 681-706''] Karau, S., Williams, K. , 1993.' </ref>:		Expectancy-value theory offers a way of quantifying a person’s motivation towards a given task – thereby also indicating a likelihood of social loafing. Following expectancy-value theory this measure of motivation is named effort motivation (EM) and given by the multiplication of three factors: Expectancy (E), Instrumentality (I) and Outcome value (OV), as given in the formula below <ref name="Vroom">[''Work and Motivation'']Vroom, V.H. , 1964, New York: Wiley </ref> <ref name="Karau">[''Social Loafing: A Meta-Analytic Review and Theoretical Integration Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 65, No. 4, 681-706''] Karau, S., Williams, K. , 1993.' </ref>: