Social Loafing - Revision history

S222535: /* Organization-related factors */

2023-05-08T22:07:00Z

Organization-related factors

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	A factor to highlight here, is the setting of appropriate goals. The link between optimal goal setting and motivation/performance was first researched by Locke, who came up with Locke's Goal Setting Theory of Motivation <ref name = "LockeYoutube"> Locke's Goal Setting Theory of Motivation. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vtX_Ueh0j-E. Accessed on 14.02.2020 </ref> . According to the theory, motivating goals have to have five characteristics: clarity, challenge, commitment, feedback and task complexity. Using [http://wiki.doing-projects.org/index.php/SMART_goals_-_A_Project_Manager_Tool SMART goals] can help with the first characteristic, clarity. To make sure the goals are an appropriate amount of challenging, scenario planning can help foresee potential scenarios that can be used as a starting point for determining the range of the goal setting. When commitment or enthusiasm for the goals are diminished, members of the group will feel less motivated to assert effort into reaching the goals and thus, the performance will decrease.		A factor to highlight here, is the setting of appropriate goals. The link between optimal goal setting and motivation/performance was first researched by Locke, who came up with Locke's Goal Setting Theory of Motivation <ref name = "LockeYoutube"> Locke's Goal Setting Theory of Motivation. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vtX_Ueh0j-E. Accessed on 14.02.2020 </ref> . According to the theory, motivating goals have to have five characteristics: clarity, challenge, commitment, feedback and task complexity. Using [http://wiki.doing-projects.org/index.php/SMART_goals_-_A_Project_Manager_Tool SMART goals] can help with the first characteristic, clarity. To make sure the goals are an appropriate amount of challenging, scenario planning can help foresee potential scenarios that can be used as a starting point for determining the range of the goal setting. When commitment or enthusiasm for the goals are diminished, members of the group will feel less motivated to assert effort into reaching the goals and thus, the performance will decrease.


	== Group-related factors ==		== Group-related factors ==

AstridRordam: /* Annotated Bibliography */

2022-03-19T16:36:06Z

Annotated Bibliography

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	''' Christopher Earley, P. (1989), Social Loafing and Collectivism: A Comparison of the United States and the People's Republic of China '''		''' Christopher Earley, P. (1989), Social Loafing and Collectivism: A Comparison of the United States and the People's Republic of China '''
	This research paper is a fascinating study in the nature of social loafing, and elevates the literature on social loafing to the highest levels of society. The researcher juxtaposes two vastly different cultures with the objective of mapping social loafing and linking the effect to human and cultural values in an organisational setting. The study concludes that there is a moderating role of collectivistic beliefs on social loafing but those beliefs are not necessarily limited to collectivistic societies and in contrast, that individuals in collectivistic societies may have more individualistic traits than ~~one would assume~~.		This research paper is a fascinating study in the nature of social loafing, and elevates the literature on social loafing to the highest levels of society. The researcher juxtaposes two vastly different cultures with the objective of mapping social loafing and linking the effect to human and cultural values in an organisational setting. The study concludes that there is a moderating role of collectivistic beliefs on social loafing but those beliefs are not necessarily limited to collectivistic societies and in contrast, that individuals in collectivistic societies may have more individualistic traits than generally assumed.

	= References =		= References =

AstridRordam: /* What can you do to mitigate? */

2022-03-19T16:34:38Z

What can you do to mitigate?

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	== Task-related factors ==		== Task-related factors ==

	The last category of factors to keep in mind when designing the project in order to minimise the risk of social loafing, according to Gil (2004), are the ones related to the tasks.		The last category of factors to keep in mind when designing the project in order to minimise the risk of social loafing, according to Gil (2004), are the ones related to the tasks.

AstridRordam at 16:34, 19 March 2022

2022-03-19T16:34:14Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:34, 19 March 2022
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	Social loafing has negative consequences for individuals, social institutions and societies <ref name="Latané1979"/>. It results in a reduction in human efficiency which in turn causes a suboptimal result of the work done by groups. A lot of important work happens via projects all around the world at every level of society, and projects are usually done in teams <ref name="ISO21500"> DS/ISO 21500:2021. Project, programme and portfolio management – Context and concepts </ref>. Therefore social loafing must be eradicated as much as possible to obtain an efficient society. It is crucial for leaders and those responsible for group work such as Project Managers to recognise the conditions under which social loafing is likely to occur and take preventive action. However, preventive action is not sufficient if the manager has a one-sided approach and they only focus on conditions related to a single factor such as feedback, group size or goal settings. Gil (2004) <ref name="Gil2004"/> divides the factors that can aid in reducing social loafing into task, group and organisation related factors to allow for a systematic approach in the preventive action. An extract of Gil's recommendations is explored in the following sections.		Social loafing has negative consequences for individuals, social institutions and societies <ref name="Latané1979"/>. It results in a reduction in human efficiency which in turn causes a suboptimal result of the work done by groups. A lot of important work happens via projects all around the world at every level of society, and projects are usually done in teams <ref name="ISO21500"> DS/ISO 21500:2021. Project, programme and portfolio management – Context and concepts </ref>. Therefore social loafing must be eradicated as much as possible to obtain an efficient society. It is crucial for leaders and those responsible for group work such as Project Managers to recognise the conditions under which social loafing is likely to occur and take preventive action. However, preventive action is not sufficient if the manager has a one-sided approach and they only focus on conditions related to a single factor such as feedback, group size or goal settings. Gil (2004) <ref name="Gil2004"/> divides the factors that can aid in reducing social loafing into task, group and organisation related factors to allow for a systematic approach in the preventive action. An extract of Gil's recommendations is explored in the following sections.

	~~'''~~Organization-related factors~~'''~~		== Organization-related factors ==

	The first set of factors are those linked to the organisation. They are seen in Table 1.		The first set of factors are those linked to the organisation. They are seen in Table 1.
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	~~'''~~Group-related factors~~'''~~		== Group-related factors ==

	The next set of factors to consider are the ones related to the group and they are seen in Table 2. This is where the Project Manager has a higher degree of influence.		The next set of factors to consider are the ones related to the group and they are seen in Table 2. This is where the Project Manager has a higher degree of influence.
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	~~'''~~Task-related factors~~'''~~		== Task-related factors ==

	The last category of factors to keep in mind when designing the project in order to minimise the risk of social loafing, according to Gil (2004), are the ones related to the tasks.		The last category of factors to keep in mind when designing the project in order to minimise the risk of social loafing, according to Gil (2004), are the ones related to the tasks.

AstridRordam: /* Prevention and reduction of social loafing */

2022-03-19T16:33:17Z

Prevention and reduction of social loafing

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	The evaluation potential not only partly explains social loafing, but also the closely related effect of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_facilitation Social Facilitation]. Social facilitation explains the phenomenon of individuals performing better or worse in the presence of others, depending on the difficulty/complexity of the task and the level of preparation, they've done beforehand <ref name="SocialFacilitation"> Social Facilitation Vs. Social loafing, PsychoGenie. https://psychologenie.com/social-facilitation-vs-social-loafing. Accessed 17.02.2022 </ref>.		The evaluation potential not only partly explains social loafing, but also the closely related effect of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_facilitation Social Facilitation]. Social facilitation explains the phenomenon of individuals performing better or worse in the presence of others, depending on the difficulty/complexity of the task and the level of preparation, they've done beforehand <ref name="SocialFacilitation"> Social Facilitation Vs. Social loafing, PsychoGenie. https://psychologenie.com/social-facilitation-vs-social-loafing. Accessed 17.02.2022 </ref>.

	= ~~Prevention and reduction of social loafing~~ =		= What can you do to mitigate? =


	Social loafing has negative consequences for individuals, social institutions and societies <ref name="Latané1979"/>. It results in a reduction in human efficiency which in turn causes a suboptimal result of the work done by groups. A lot of important work happens via projects all around the world at every level of society, and projects are usually done in teams <ref name="ISO21500"> DS/ISO 21500:2021. Project, programme and portfolio management – Context and concepts </ref>. Therefore social loafing must be eradicated as much as possible to obtain an efficient society. It is crucial for leaders and those responsible for group work such as Project Managers to recognise the conditions under which social loafing is likely to occur and take preventive action. However, preventive action is not sufficient if the manager has a one-sided approach and they only focus on conditions related to a single factor such as feedback, group size or goal settings. Gil (2004) <ref name="Gil2004"/> divides the factors that can aid in reducing social loafing into task, group and organisation related factors to allow for a systematic approach in the preventive action. An extract of Gil's recommendations is explored in the following sections.		Social loafing has negative consequences for individuals, social institutions and societies <ref name="Latané1979"/>. It results in a reduction in human efficiency which in turn causes a suboptimal result of the work done by groups. A lot of important work happens via projects all around the world at every level of society, and projects are usually done in teams <ref name="ISO21500"> DS/ISO 21500:2021. Project, programme and portfolio management – Context and concepts </ref>. Therefore social loafing must be eradicated as much as possible to obtain an efficient society. It is crucial for leaders and those responsible for group work such as Project Managers to recognise the conditions under which social loafing is likely to occur and take preventive action. However, preventive action is not sufficient if the manager has a one-sided approach and they only focus on conditions related to a single factor such as feedback, group size or goal settings. Gil (2004) <ref name="Gil2004"/> divides the factors that can aid in reducing social loafing into task, group and organisation related factors to allow for a systematic approach in the preventive action. An extract of Gil's recommendations is explored in the following sections.

AstridRordam: /* Theoretical causes of social loafing */

2022-03-19T16:32:54Z

Theoretical causes of social loafing

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	In 1913, Max Ringelmann conducted a study in which he wanted to determine, if there was a correlation between the effort individuals put forth and the size of the group, that individual was working with <ref name="Ringelmann1913"/>. He had people pull a rope, both individually and in groups and found that the combined force used to pull the rope was less than what it should theoretically have been, given the forces that each individual was capable of asserting. This effect got the name social loafing, and similar studies were later conducted to further characterise the effect. One of these studies was conducted by Latané, Williams and Harkins (1979) <ref name="Latané1979"/>, who points out, that Ringelmanns task of pulling a rope is maximising, unitary and additive and the task and equipment is cumbersome and in-efficient. They conducted a study in with participants were asked to clap and shout as loudly as possible. Choosing another maximising, unitary and additive task allowed the researchers to study the social loafing effect under similar conditions as in the Ringelmann study. The same experiment was done on eight separate occasions, each with 36 trials of clapping and 36 trials of shouting <ref name="Latané1979"/>. The study found, that while the combined noise made by the participants increased as the number of people in the group increased, it did not grow in proportion to the number of people. In fact, groups of two performed at 71% of the sum of their individual capacity, groups of four performed at 51% and groups of eight performed at only 40% <ref name="Latané1979"/>. These results are much in line with those of Ringelmann, further deepening the understanding of social loafing.		In 1913, Max Ringelmann conducted a study in which he wanted to determine, if there was a correlation between the effort individuals put forth and the size of the group, that individual was working with <ref name="Ringelmann1913"/>. He had people pull a rope, both individually and in groups and found that the combined force used to pull the rope was less than what it should theoretically have been, given the forces that each individual was capable of asserting. This effect got the name social loafing, and similar studies were later conducted to further characterise the effect. One of these studies was conducted by Latané, Williams and Harkins (1979) <ref name="Latané1979"/>, who points out, that Ringelmanns task of pulling a rope is maximising, unitary and additive and the task and equipment is cumbersome and in-efficient. They conducted a study in with participants were asked to clap and shout as loudly as possible. Choosing another maximising, unitary and additive task allowed the researchers to study the social loafing effect under similar conditions as in the Ringelmann study. The same experiment was done on eight separate occasions, each with 36 trials of clapping and 36 trials of shouting <ref name="Latané1979"/>. The study found, that while the combined noise made by the participants increased as the number of people in the group increased, it did not grow in proportion to the number of people. In fact, groups of two performed at 71% of the sum of their individual capacity, groups of four performed at 51% and groups of eight performed at only 40% <ref name="Latané1979"/>. These results are much in line with those of Ringelmann, further deepening the understanding of social loafing.

	= ~~Theoretical~~ causes of social loafing =		= What causes social loafing? =

	Since social loafing was first studied, several theories have been applied to try and explain the effect. Some of these include: Social impact theory and Identification and evaluation potential. Other theories such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_of_responsibility Diffusion of Responsibility] and Dispensability of Effort will not be discussed here, although present in social loafing literature. As often seen with theories, they each have limitations and in reality, what contributes to social loafing on a case by case basis is likely a combination of multiple theories and phenomena.		Since social loafing was first studied, several theories have been applied to try and explain the effect. Some of these include: Social impact theory and Identification and evaluation potential. Other theories such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_of_responsibility Diffusion of Responsibility] and Dispensability of Effort will not be discussed here, although present in social loafing literature. As often seen with theories, they each have limitations and in reality, what contributes to social loafing on a case by case basis is likely a combination of multiple theories and phenomena.

AstridRordam: /* Abstract */

2022-03-19T11:32:32Z

Abstract

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	<ref name="Karau2012"> Karau, S.J. (2012). Social loafing (and facilitation). Encyclopedia of Human Behavior. Second edition. pp 486 </ref>		<ref name="Karau2012"> Karau, S.J. (2012). Social loafing (and facilitation). Encyclopedia of Human Behavior. Second edition. pp 486 </ref>
	It was first studied in the early 1900s by Max Ringelmann <ref name="Ringelmann1913"> Ringelmann, M. (1913) “Recherches sur les moteurs animés: Travail de l’homme” [Research on animate sources of power: The work of man], Annales de l’Institut National Agronomique, 2nd series, vol 12, pages 1-40 </ref> and has since been the focal point of several empirical and theoretical studies		It was first studied in the early 1900s by Max Ringelmann <ref name="Ringelmann1913"> Ringelmann, M. (1913) “Recherches sur les moteurs animés: Travail de l’homme” [Research on animate sources of power: The work of man], Annales de l’Institut National Agronomique, 2nd series, vol 12, pages 1-40 </ref> and has since been the focal point of several empirical and theoretical studies
	<ref name="Latané1979"> Latané, ~~Bibb;~~ Williams, ~~Kipling;~~ Harkins, ~~Stephen~~ (1979). “Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 37 (6): 822–832 </ref>		<ref name="Latané1979"> Latané, B., Williams, K., Harkins, S. (1979). “Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 37 (6): 822–832 </ref>
	<ref name="Gabrenya1983"> Gabrenya, Jr., ~~Latane~~, Wang (1983). "Social loafing in cross-cultural Perspective". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 14 (3): 368–384. </ref>		<ref name="Gabrenya1983"> Gabrenya, Jr., Latané, B., Wang, Y. (1983). "Social loafing in cross-cultural Perspective". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 14 (3): 368–384. </ref>
	<ref name="Kugihara1999"> Kugihara (1999). "Gender and Social Loafing in Japan". The Journal of Social Psychology. 139 (4): 516–526 </ref>		<ref name="Kugihara1999"> Kugihara (1999). "Gender and Social Loafing in Japan". The Journal of Social Psychology. 139 (4): 516–526 </ref>
	<ref name="Earley1989"> Christopher Earley, P. (1989). "Social Loafing and Collectivism: A Comparison of the United States and the People's Republic of China". Administrative Science Quarterly. 34 (4): 565–581 </ref>		<ref name="Earley1989"> Christopher Earley, P. (1989). "Social Loafing and Collectivism: A Comparison of the United States and the People's Republic of China". Administrative Science Quarterly. 34 (4): 565–581 </ref>
	<ref name="Aggarwal2008"> Aggarwal, P., & O'Brien, C. (2008). Social antecedents and effect on student satisfaction, Journal of Marketing Education, 30(3), 25-264 </ref>		<ref name="Aggarwal2008"> Aggarwal, P. & O'Brien, C. (2008). Social antecedents and effect on student satisfaction, Journal of Marketing Education, 30(3), 25-264 </ref>

AstridRordam: /* Annotated Bibliography */

2022-03-19T10:04:02Z

Annotated Bibliography

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	This research paper provides insightful results in - and is one of the first studies of - social loafing. The paper has become a cornerstone in the literature on the topic of social loafing, with many other authors referring to it.		This research paper provides insightful results in - and is one of the first studies of - social loafing. The paper has become a cornerstone in the literature on the topic of social loafing, with many other authors referring to it.
	The paper contains a brief analysis and references to the original Max Ringelmann study, and extends the findings hereof in an interesting and easy to understand manner.		The paper contains a brief analysis and references to the original Max Ringelmann study, and extends the findings hereof in an interesting and easy to understand manner.


	''' Christopher Earley, P. (1989), Social Loafing and Collectivism: A Comparison of the United States and the People's Republic of China '''		''' Christopher Earley, P. (1989), Social Loafing and Collectivism: A Comparison of the United States and the People's Republic of China '''

AstridRordam: /* Annotated Bibliography */

2022-03-19T10:03:48Z

Annotated Bibliography

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	''' Latané, Williams and Harkins (1979), Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing'''		''' Latané, Williams and Harkins (1979), Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing'''
	This research paper provides insightful results in - and is one of the first studies of - social loafing. The paper has become a cornerstone in the literature on the topic of social loafing, with many other authors referring to it.		This research paper provides insightful results in - and is one of the first studies of - social loafing. The paper has become a cornerstone in the literature on the topic of social loafing, with many other authors referring to it.
	The paper contains a brief analysis and references to the original Max Ringelmann study, and extends the findings hereof in an interesting and easy to understand manner.		The paper contains a brief analysis and references to the original Max Ringelmann study, and extends the findings hereof in an interesting and easy to understand manner.

			''' Christopher Earley, P. (1989), Social Loafing and Collectivism: A Comparison of the United States and the People's Republic of China '''
			This research paper is a fascinating study in the nature of social loafing, and elevates the literature on social loafing to the highest levels of society. The researcher juxtaposes two vastly different cultures with the objective of mapping social loafing and linking the effect to human and cultural values in an organisational setting. The study concludes that there is a moderating role of collectivistic beliefs on social loafing but those beliefs are not necessarily limited to collectivistic societies and in contrast, that individuals in collectivistic societies may have more individualistic traits than one would assume.

	= References =		= References =

AstridRordam: /* Limitations */

2022-03-19T09:51:39Z

Limitations

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	= Limitations =		= Limitations =

	While it is intuitively important to reduce social loafing and the consequences hereof, it is not easy to measure the exact effect social loafing can have in a complex setting. When this phenomena is studied, the same task is done over and over to obtain numbers and measures of the effect as exemplified by the work of Ringelmann and Latané amongst many others. In a normal, real world setting, taks and projects are not repeated simply to identify if social loafing is happening to not. Therefore, there will always be some ambiguity when relating a phenomena such as social loafing to a real world project and thus, it is not possible to state whether the risk of social loafing is present in every imaginable task. Some tasks or settings may not provoke any social loafing at all due to the nature of the tasks or the people who's doing them. As a matter of fact, several studies have looked at social loafing across different groups of people to try and characterise social loafing as either an innate human characteristic or dependent on gender, culture or surroundings and thus not omnipotent <ref name="KarauWiliams1993"/> <ref name="Gabrenya1983"/> <ref name="Earley1989"/> .		While it is intuitively important to reduce social loafing and the consequences hereof, it is not easy to measure the exact effect social loafing can have in a complex setting. When this phenomena is studied, the same task is done over and over to obtain numbers and measures of the effect as exemplified by the work of Ringelmann and Latané amongst many others. In a normal, real world setting, taks and projects are not repeated simply to identify if social loafing is happening to not. Therefore, there will always be some ambiguity when relating a phenomena such as social loafing to a real world project and thus, it is not possible to state whether the risk of social loafing is present in every imaginable task. Some tasks or settings may not provoke any social loafing at all due to the nature of the tasks or the people who's doing them. As a matter of fact, several studies have looked at social loafing across different groups of people to try and characterise social loafing as either an innate human characteristic or dependent on gender, culture or surroundings and thus not omnipotent <ref name="KarauWiliams1993"/> <ref name="Kugihara1999"/> <ref name="Gabrenya1983"/> <ref name="Earley1989"/> .

	== Gender ==		== Gender ==