Pooled, Sequential & Reciprocal dependence - Revision history

RuneSten: /* Abstract */

2023-05-09T12:57:59Z

Abstract

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	== Abstract ==		== Abstract ==
	A project consists of a series of tasks that need to be executed in order to complete it. The way these tasks are arranged in relation to each other will come down to their interdependence. According to James D. Thompson, task interdependence can be distinguished into three types: ''pooled'', ''sequential'' and ''reciprocal''. For a project manager interdependencies can be a powerful tool in managing the complexity of a project. Using interdependencies to characterize tasks in a project will help to determine the sequence of which tasks should be completed in order to optimise time use, resources, workers, etc.		A project consists of a series of tasks that need to be executed in order to complete it. The way these tasks are arranged in relation to each other will come down to their interdependence. According to James D. Thompson, task interdependence can be distinguished into three types: ''pooled'', ''sequential'' and ''reciprocal''. For a project manager interdependencies can be a powerful tool in managing the complexity of a project. Using interdependencies to characterize tasks in a project will help to determine the sequence of which tasks should be completed in order to optimise time use, resources, workers, etc. As the original classification of the three interdependency types, by Thompson, is quite old, additions to the terminology has been added over the years. Especially noteworthy here is the addition of ''intensive interdependecy''. As the categorization of task interdependecies in and of itself is not particularly useful, the types are accompanied by three coordination types: ''standardization'', ''planning'', and ''mutual adjustment''. These help guide the project manager through how to best address the interdependencies that they identify in their project's tasks. Lastly, it should be noted that task interdependencies are not perfect and they need to be used in conjunction with other tools to realize their potential. Furthermore, they should not be seen as an "easy way out" in terms of managing project complexities, as they are only as useful as the capabilities of the project manager allows them to be. All this will be explained in greater detail in the article.

	~~- Intestive interdependecy~~ has been added
	- coordination tasks
	~~- limitations~~

	All this will be ~~explored~~ in greater detail ~~and described~~ in the article.

RuneSten: /* Other interdependencies (Intensive interdependency) */

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Other interdependencies (Intensive interdependency)

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	==== Other interdependencies (Intensive interdependency) ====		==== Other interdependencies (Intensive interdependency) ====
	While Thompsons three original types of interdependencies have stood the test of time, they have not been without scrutiny. A common point of critique has been questioning the original types’ ability to sufficiently cover and explain all sorts of organizations, as some would argue that some structures are not able to be defined through these ~~(source)~~. When the focus is shifted onto projects, as this article does, this lack of depth becomes even more apparent~~. Read more about this in the section ‘Limitations’~~.		While Thompsons three original types of interdependencies have stood the test of time, they have not been without scrutiny. A common point of critique has been questioning the original types’ ability to sufficiently cover and explain all sorts of organizations, as some would argue that some structures are not able to be defined through these. When the focus is shifted onto projects, as this article does, this lack of depth becomes even more apparent.

	To address this critique, a fourth type of interdependency was introduced by Van de Ven, Delbecq, and Koenig in 1976<ref name="intensive"> Ven, A. H., Delbecq, A. L., & Koenig, R. (1976). Determinants of coordination modes within organizations. American Sociological Review, 41(2), 322–338. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094477 </ref>, named ''intensive interdependency''. In relation to the complexity hierarchy, it lies a step above ''reciprocal interdependency'', but works in a different way than the others. Work that is categorized as intensive does not have a clear distinction to the order of input or output between tasks, which is evidently apparent in the original three types. Instead, completing intensive work is characterized by a workflow where tasks are worked upon simultaneously by multiple entities and without a specific order or sequence dictating it (see Fig. 4).		To address this critique, a fourth type of interdependency was introduced by Van de Ven, Delbecq, and Koenig in 1976<ref name="intensive"> Ven, A. H., Delbecq, A. L., & Koenig, R. (1976). Determinants of coordination modes within organizations. American Sociological Review, 41(2), 322–338. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094477 </ref>, named ''intensive interdependency''. In relation to the complexity hierarchy, it lies a step above ''reciprocal interdependency'', but works in a different way than the others. Work that is categorized as intensive does not have a clear distinction to the order of input or output between tasks, which is evidently apparent in the original three types. Instead, completing intensive work is characterized by a workflow where tasks are worked upon simultaneously by multiple entities and without a specific order or sequence dictating it (see Fig. 4).
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	A number of other types of interdependencies exists including ''Risk Interdependency'', ''Resource Interdependency'', and ''Outcome Interdependency''. While these are recognized in literature (<ref name="risk"> WIRBA, E. N., TAH, J. H. M., & HOWES, R. (1996). Risk interdependencies and natural language computations. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 3(4), 251–269. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb021034 </ref>, <ref name="resource1"> Tilk, C., Drexl, M., & Irnich, S. (2019). Nested branch-and-price-and-cut for vehicle routing problems with multiple resource interdependencies. European Journal of Operational Research, 276(2), 549–565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2019.01.041 </ref><ref name="resource2"> Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI). (2017). Standard for Program Management (4th Edition) - 8.2.7.1 Resource Interdependency Management. Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI). Retrieved from		A number of other types of interdependencies exists including ''Risk Interdependency'', ''Resource Interdependency'', and ''Outcome Interdependency''. While these are recognized in literature (<ref name="risk"> WIRBA, E. N., TAH, J. H. M., & HOWES, R. (1996). Risk interdependencies and natural language computations. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 3(4), 251–269. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb021034 </ref>, <ref name="resource1"> Tilk, C., Drexl, M., & Irnich, S. (2019). Nested branch-and-price-and-cut for vehicle routing problems with multiple resource interdependencies. European Journal of Operational Research, 276(2), 549–565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2019.01.041 </ref><ref name="resource2"> Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI). (2017). Standard for Program Management (4th Edition) - 8.2.7.1 Resource Interdependency Management. Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI). Retrieved from
	https://app.knovel.com/hotlink/pdf/id:kt012S0VU1/standard-program-management/resource-interdependency </ref>, <ref name="outcome"> McLaughlin, D. M. (2023). Evaluating the impact of different spatial linkages on forum outcome interdependencies in Polycentric Systems. Public Administration Review, 83(3), 552–569. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13599 </ref>), they all also use principles from the original task interdependencies defined by Thompson, while of course being tailored towards specific use cases. As they are not within the scope of this article, they will not be dived further into in this article.		https://app.knovel.com/hotlink/pdf/id:kt012S0VU1/standard-program-management/resource-interdependency </ref>, <ref name="outcome"> McLaughlin, D. M. (2023). Evaluating the impact of different spatial linkages on forum outcome interdependencies in Polycentric Systems. Public Administration Review, 83(3), 552–569. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13599 </ref>), they all also use principles from the original task interdependencies defined by Thompson, while of course being tailored towards specific use cases. As they are not within the scope of this article, they will not be dived further into in this article.


	=== Coordination ===		=== Coordination ===

RuneSten: /* Annotated Bibliography */

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Annotated Bibliography

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	== Annotated Bibliography ==		== Annotated Bibliography ==
			'''Knotten, V., Svalestuen, F., Hansen, G. K., & Lædre, O. (2015). Design management in the building process - A review of current literature. Procedia Economics and Finance, 21, 120–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671(15)00158-6'''

			''The article seeks to address a falling productivity in the AEC industry and looks to task interdependencies from a design management point of view. The articles take on the interdependency types have been a key part of providing an understanding of the utilization of interdependencies in a modern context, adding theory on project complexity and uncertainties to improve this perspective.''


	'''Mach, M., C.M. Abrantes, A., & Soler, C. (2021). Teamwork in Healthcare Management. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96826'''		'''Mach, M., C.M. Abrantes, A., & Soler, C. (2021). Teamwork in Healthcare Management. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96826'''

	''The article uses task interdependence in teams from a healthcare context. It has been valuable in its explanation of the four interdependency types that are used in this article.''		''The article uses task interdependence in teams from a healthcare context. It has been valuable in its explanation of the four interdependency types that are used in this article.''


	'''Knotten, V., Svalestuen, F., Hansen, G. K., & Lædre, O. (2015). Design management in the building process - A review of current literature. Procedia Economics and Finance, 21, 120–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671(15)00158-6'''

	''The article seeks to address a falling productivity in the AEC industry and looks to task interdependencies from a design management point of view. The articles take on the interdependency types have been a key part of providing an understanding of the utilization of interdependencies in a modern context, adding theory on project complexity and uncertainties to improve this perspective.''

RuneSten: /* Annotated Bibliography */

2023-05-09T12:27:38Z

Annotated Bibliography

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	== Annotated Bibliography ==		== Annotated Bibliography ==

	Mach, M., C.M. Abrantes, A., & Soler, C. (2021). Teamwork in Healthcare Management. IntechOpen. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.96826		'''Mach, M., C.M. Abrantes, A., & Soler, C. (2021). Teamwork in Healthcare Management. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96826'''

	~~Knotten, V., Svalestuen, F., Hansen, G. K., & Lædre, O. (2015)~~. ~~Design management~~ in the ~~building process - A review of current literature. Procedia Economics and Finance, 21, 120–127. https://doi.org/10~~.~~1016/s2212-5671(15)00158-6~~		''The article uses task interdependence in teams from a healthcare context. It has been valuable in its explanation of the four interdependency types that are used in this article.''

	Thompson, J. D. (1973). Organizations in action: Social science bases of administrative theory. McGraw-Hill.
			'''Knotten, V., Svalestuen, F., Hansen, G. K., & Lædre, O. (2015). Design management in the building process - A review of current literature. Procedia Economics and Finance, 21, 120–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671(15)00158-6'''

			''The article seeks to address a falling productivity in the AEC industry and looks to task interdependencies from a design management point of view. The articles take on the interdependency types have been a key part of providing an understanding of the utilization of interdependencies in a modern context, adding theory on project complexity and uncertainties to improve this perspective.''


			'''Thompson, J. D. (1973). Organizations in action: Social science bases of administrative theory. McGraw-Hill.'''

			''This is the book that lays ground to the theory of this article. While Thompson’s classification of task interdependencies is not the only, or even the first, effort to explain and structure them, his work has proved influential in different industry settings, and is still in use today. The original book is therefore still relevant when learning about interdependencies to this day.''

RuneSten at 10:44, 9 May 2023

2023-05-09T10:44:25Z

Show changes

RuneSten at 10:18, 9 May 2023

2023-05-09T10:18:43Z

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	~~'''Motivation'''~~
	~~An article on this topic already exists on the wiki. However, I believe I can improve/supplement this article on a number of points:~~
	~~1) Elaborate on the application potential of the different types of dependencies.~~
	~~2) Supplement the original theory, from James D. Thomson’s Organizations in Action, with today’s perspective on it (how the theory has evolved).~~
	~~3) Take the theory from its original focus on project management and discuss its application potential on program and portfolio management levels.~~
	~~4) Describe dependencies’ ability to work as a Risk Management tool~~

	~~The topic is highly relevant to our case, and I hope this can be used to write a better article as well as prove useful on the case work.~~

	== Abstract (Draft)==		== Abstract (Draft)==
	A project consists of a series of tasks that need to be executed in order to complete it. The way these tasks are arranged in relation to each other will come down to their dependence. According to James D. Thompson, task dependence can be distinguished into three types: Pooled, Sequential and Reciprocal. For a Project Manager dependencies can be a powerful tool in managing the complexity of a project. Using dependencies to characterise tasks in a project will help to determine the sequence of which tasks should be completed in order to optimise time use, resources, workers, etc. A way dependencies are not used much yet is on the levels above project management, namely program and portfolio management. Here, dependencies could prove useful in terms of optimising efficiency in a program or portfolio setting, spanning across several projects.		A project consists of a series of tasks that need to be executed in order to complete it. The way these tasks are arranged in relation to each other will come down to their dependence. According to James D. Thompson, task dependence can be distinguished into three types: Pooled, Sequential and Reciprocal. For a Project Manager dependencies can be a powerful tool in managing the complexity of a project. Using dependencies to characterise tasks in a project will help to determine the sequence of which tasks should be completed in order to optimise time use, resources, workers, etc. A way dependencies are not used much yet is on the levels above project management, namely program and portfolio management. Here, dependencies could prove useful in terms of optimising efficiency in a program or portfolio setting, spanning across several projects.

RuneSten: /* Limitations */

2023-05-09T10:18:04Z

Limitations

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	== Limitations ==		== Limitations ==
	~~A look into~~ how the ~~field have developed since~~ the ~~original introduction~~ in ~~1967~~. ~~How~~ the ~~old theory falls short (Lack~~ of ~~depth~~ and ~~distinguish between~~ the ~~three original~~ types of ~~dependency)~~		While knowing how to address and work with task interdependencies within a project can be a helpful management tool that can help reduce project complexity and mitigate the risks from project uncertainties, their implementation comes with potential ramifications. Firstly, the process of using task interdependencies actively in a project entails substantial work and planning on its own. The identification process will increase in workload with the complexity of a project and might therefore add additional work hours for a project manager. Furthermore, the planning that the coordination types encourage might result in a lack of flexibility in the project, possibly leading to unforeseen consequences, should a unknown risk occur[http://wiki.doing-projects.org/index.php/Managing_Uncertainty_and_Risk_on_the_Project]. Communication, that is essential to the ''reciprocal'' and ''intensive interdependency'', can also fail resulting in subpar results, delays, etc. However, while the identification of interdependencies might require extra work hours, doing so will also provide the project manager with a better overview of the given project and more control over possible risks. Risks that are tied with uncertainties that would otherwise be ignored or dealt with if/when they occur, possibly increasing their negative impact compared to the time invested in preventing them. The rest of the ramifications, could be said, are not the fault of the interdependency types per se, but rather a possible outcome that could happen whether the interdependencies were addressed or not. If anything, they highlight places where problems could arise during the project and allows for preventative measure to be taken beforehand.

	== Additional reading ==		== Additional reading ==

RuneSten: /* Annotated Bibliography */

2023-05-09T09:05:37Z

Annotated Bibliography

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	Lemak, D.J. and Reed, R. (2000) “An application of Thompson's typology to TQM in service firms,” Journal of Quality Management, 5(1), pp. 67–83. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/s1084-8568(00)00013-4. - Article on how to apply the theory of Thompson, J.D. in an untypical setting. Here a service firm		Lemak, D.J. and Reed, R. (2000) “An application of Thompson's typology to TQM in service firms,” Journal of Quality Management, 5(1), pp. 67–83. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/s1084-8568(00)00013-4. - Article on how to apply the theory of Thompson, J.D. in an untypical setting. Here a service firm

	Mach, M., C.M. Abrantes, A., & Soler, C. (2021). Teamwork in Healthcare Management. Teamwork in Healthcare. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.96826 - Article on using interdependence in a Health care setting, and expanding the original theory. Used as inspiration for models.

	Tan, F. T., Pan, S. L., & Zuo, M. (2018). Realising platform operational agility through information technology–enabled capabilities: A resource‐interdependence perspective. Information Systems Journal, 29(3), 582–608. https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12221		Tan, F. T., Pan, S. L., & Zuo, M. (2018). Realising platform operational agility through information technology–enabled capabilities: A resource‐interdependence perspective. Information Systems Journal, 29(3), 582–608. https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12221

RuneSten: /* Application */

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Application

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	=== Utilizing interdependencies ===		=== Utilizing interdependencies ===
	In general, it is understood that to be able to handle interdependencies it is necessary to understand them<ref name="control"/>. The aim of this article, so far, has been to provide the necessary foundational information that should ensure a general understanding of task interdependencies within a project context. In order to successfully apply this situation in a real-life project context, the following section will ~~describe the process of implementing the utilization of task~~ interdependencies ~~in a project for the four interdependency types that~~ have been ~~the focus of this article~~.		In general, it is understood that to be able to handle interdependencies it is necessary to understand them<ref name="control"/>. The aim of this article, so far, has been to provide the necessary foundational information that should ensure a general understanding of task interdependencies within a project context. In order to successfully apply this situation in a real-life project context, the following section will look at ways to address interdependencies when they have been identified.

	As projects are complex by nature, task interdependencies can only provide a part of the overall picture which is necessary for keeping the overview. The identification of task interdependencies by itself is, therefore, not an effective way of utilizing their potential. The identification, however, can be used as a foundation for a larger initiative in an effort to make strategic decisions in a project. This foundation can further benefit from the inclusion of models like the ''Project Management Triangle'' ([http://wiki.doing-projects.org/index.php/Project_Management_Triangle], <ref name="Doingprojects"/>) or the ''Iron triangle'', as it is also called, as a complimentary tool that can help project managers navigate and guide decisions making. The initiative should then subsequently be reinforced with tools that correspond to the identified interdependencies, which the coordination types can help with.		As projects are complex by nature, task interdependencies can only provide a part of the overall picture which is necessary for keeping the overview and address uncertainties. The identification of task interdependencies by itself is, therefore, not an effective way of utilizing their potential. The identification, however, can be used as a foundation for a larger initiative in an effort to make strategic decisions in a project. This foundation can further benefit from the inclusion of models like the ''Project Management Triangle'' ([http://wiki.doing-projects.org/index.php/Project_Management_Triangle], <ref name="Doingprojects"/>) or the ''Iron triangle'', as it is also called, as a complimentary tool that can help project managers navigate and guide decisions making. The initiative should then subsequently be reinforced with tools that correspond to the identified interdependencies, which the coordination types can help with.

	Tasks identified to have ''pooled interdependency'' between each other will implement rules and routines, following the ''standardization'' coordination type. The rules and routines are meant to mitigate the risk of miscommunication between task-holders, and at the same time minimize the need for communication by setting a shared set of standards to follow. This will be done by management, possibly with guidance from specialist to ensure the established guidelines does not compromise the end product, and that potential regulations and legislations are met.		Tasks identified to have ''pooled interdependency'' between each other will implement rules and routines, following the ''standardization'' coordination type. The rules and routines are meant to mitigate the risk of miscommunication between task-holders, and at the same time minimize the need for communication by setting a shared set of standards to follow. This will be done by management, possibly with guidance from specialist to ensure the established guidelines does not compromise the end product, and that potential regulations and legislations are met.

RuneSten: /* Application */

2023-05-09T08:59:57Z

Application

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	As projects are complex by nature, task interdependencies can only provide a part of the overall picture which is necessary for keeping the overview. The identification of task interdependencies by itself is, therefore, not an effective way of utilizing their potential. The identification, however, can be used as a foundation for a larger initiative in an effort to make strategic decisions in a project. This foundation can further benefit from the inclusion of models like the ''Project Management Triangle'' ([http://wiki.doing-projects.org/index.php/Project_Management_Triangle], <ref name="Doingprojects"/>) or the ''Iron triangle'', as it is also called, as a complimentary tool that can help project managers navigate and guide decisions making. The initiative should then subsequently be reinforced with tools that correspond to the identified interdependencies, which the coordination types can help with.		As projects are complex by nature, task interdependencies can only provide a part of the overall picture which is necessary for keeping the overview. The identification of task interdependencies by itself is, therefore, not an effective way of utilizing their potential. The identification, however, can be used as a foundation for a larger initiative in an effort to make strategic decisions in a project. This foundation can further benefit from the inclusion of models like the ''Project Management Triangle'' ([http://wiki.doing-projects.org/index.php/Project_Management_Triangle], <ref name="Doingprojects"/>) or the ''Iron triangle'', as it is also called, as a complimentary tool that can help project managers navigate and guide decisions making. The initiative should then subsequently be reinforced with tools that correspond to the identified interdependencies, which the coordination types can help with.

			Tasks identified to have ''pooled interdependency'' between each other will implement rules and routines, following the ''standardization'' coordination type. The rules and routines are meant to mitigate the risk of miscommunication between task-holders, and at the same time minimize the need for communication by setting a shared set of standards to follow. This will be done by management, possibly with guidance from specialist to ensure the established guidelines does not compromise the end product, and that potential regulations and legislations are met.

			A project containing tasks identified with ''sequential interdependency'' will, following the coordination types, structure these tasks using ''planning'' coordination. A tool that can be used to facilitate planning coordination is the Gant chart, as it is designed to keep track of linear processes that have an end to them<ref name="control"/>. This interdependency type is relatively simple to handle as the flow of the tasks and task output follows a linear path, and it is therefore possible to easily locate bottlenecks, and trace back responsibility through the path of tasks<ref name="control"/>.

			For ''reciprocal'' and ''intensive interdependency'', the same coordination type applies, ''mutual adjustment'', and they are therefore addressed in similar ways. Tasks with these interdependencies between each other, rely on continuous communication and information exchange between the task holders. This communication can be achieved with general tools such as status meetings[http://wiki.doing-projects.org/index.php/Meeting_strategies], e-mail correspondence, and Kanban boards or with more sophisticated tools such as a Project Communication Plan[http://wiki.doing-projects.org/index.php/Effective_Communication_in_Project_Management], and PM tools e.g., the monday.com platform and Miro.

	== Limitations ==		== Limitations ==