Mindfulness and Cognitive Biases in Project Management - Revision history

Tkokotas at 14:53, 18 December 2018

2018-12-18T14:53:23Z

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			''Developed by Martin Jacobsen''


	This article will address how knowledge about, mindfulness, the workings of the mind, and the related cognitive biases that follows; can be used as tools to better deal with high-risk decisions in an inherently dynamic and complex world.		This article will address how knowledge about, mindfulness, the workings of the mind, and the related cognitive biases that follows; can be used as tools to better deal with high-risk decisions in an inherently dynamic and complex world.

MistaJacob: /* Engineering systems */

2015-09-28T20:30:55Z

Engineering systems

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	=Engineering systems=		=Engineering systems=
	[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|~~380px~~\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]		[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|370px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]
	The view that our modern lives are governed by engineering systems, articulated by de Weck et al.,<ref>de Weck, O. L., Roos, D., & Magee, C. L. (2011). ''Engineering systems: Meeting human needs in a complex technological world'', ch. 1 & 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - '''Annotation:''' The first two chapters of the book is about how the human inventions begin to be connected, create networks and infrastructure, along with some of the complications on the way. It defines how we went from simple inventions, through complex systems, to engineering systems where everything is interconnected. This view was adopted here as a help to explain why the complexity of the world only is on the rise, and that new tools are required to deal with it.</ref> is adopted to explain why the complexity of the world only goes one way, upwards. In short, they distinguish between three levels of systems: artifact, complex, and engineering. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of the following example. At artifact level we have inventions, e.g. cars, phones, the light bulb, etc. In themselves, they do not offer any real benefits to our lives. To utilize their potential, and to exploit their respective benefits, the right infrastructure has to be present. Continuing the above example, the needed infrastructure consists of: roads, public switched telephone network (PSTN), and the electrical power grid. This level of interconnectedness is defined as the complex systems level. Continuing further; the once isolated transportation, communication, and energy system, is now getting increasingly interconnected. This is the engineering systems level.		The view that our modern lives are governed by engineering systems, articulated by de Weck et al.,<ref>de Weck, O. L., Roos, D., & Magee, C. L. (2011). ''Engineering systems: Meeting human needs in a complex technological world'', ch. 1 & 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - '''Annotation:''' The first two chapters of the book is about how the human inventions begin to be connected, create networks and infrastructure, along with some of the complications on the way. It defines how we went from simple inventions, through complex systems, to engineering systems where everything is interconnected. This view was adopted here as a help to explain why the complexity of the world only is on the rise, and that new tools are required to deal with it.</ref> is adopted to explain why the complexity of the world only goes one way, upwards. In short, they distinguish between three levels of systems: artifact, complex, and engineering. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of the following example. At artifact level we have inventions, e.g. cars, phones, the light bulb, etc. In themselves, they do not offer any real benefits to our lives. To utilize their potential, and to exploit their respective benefits, the right infrastructure has to be present. Continuing the above example, the needed infrastructure consists of: roads, public switched telephone network (PSTN), and the electrical power grid. This level of interconnectedness is defined as the complex systems level. Continuing further; the once isolated transportation, communication, and energy system, is now getting increasingly interconnected. This is the engineering systems level.

MistaJacob: /* Engineering systems */

2015-09-28T20:30:33Z

Engineering systems

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	=Engineering systems=		=Engineering systems=
	[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|~~350px~~\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]		[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|380px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]
	The view that our modern lives are governed by engineering systems, articulated by de Weck et al.,<ref>de Weck, O. L., Roos, D., & Magee, C. L. (2011). ''Engineering systems: Meeting human needs in a complex technological world'', ch. 1 & 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - '''Annotation:''' The first two chapters of the book is about how the human inventions begin to be connected, create networks and infrastructure, along with some of the complications on the way. It defines how we went from simple inventions, through complex systems, to engineering systems where everything is interconnected. This view was adopted here as a help to explain why the complexity of the world only is on the rise, and that new tools are required to deal with it.</ref> is adopted to explain why the complexity of the world only goes one way, upwards. In short, they distinguish between three levels of systems: artifact, complex, and engineering. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of the following example. At artifact level we have inventions, e.g. cars, phones, the light bulb, etc. In themselves, they do not offer any real benefits to our lives. To utilize their potential, and to exploit their respective benefits, the right infrastructure has to be present. Continuing the above example, the needed infrastructure consists of: roads, public switched telephone network (PSTN), and the electrical power grid. This level of interconnectedness is defined as the complex systems level. Continuing further; the once isolated transportation, communication, and energy system, is now getting increasingly interconnected. This is the engineering systems level.		The view that our modern lives are governed by engineering systems, articulated by de Weck et al.,<ref>de Weck, O. L., Roos, D., & Magee, C. L. (2011). ''Engineering systems: Meeting human needs in a complex technological world'', ch. 1 & 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - '''Annotation:''' The first two chapters of the book is about how the human inventions begin to be connected, create networks and infrastructure, along with some of the complications on the way. It defines how we went from simple inventions, through complex systems, to engineering systems where everything is interconnected. This view was adopted here as a help to explain why the complexity of the world only is on the rise, and that new tools are required to deal with it.</ref> is adopted to explain why the complexity of the world only goes one way, upwards. In short, they distinguish between three levels of systems: artifact, complex, and engineering. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of the following example. At artifact level we have inventions, e.g. cars, phones, the light bulb, etc. In themselves, they do not offer any real benefits to our lives. To utilize their potential, and to exploit their respective benefits, the right infrastructure has to be present. Continuing the above example, the needed infrastructure consists of: roads, public switched telephone network (PSTN), and the electrical power grid. This level of interconnectedness is defined as the complex systems level. Continuing further; the once isolated transportation, communication, and energy system, is now getting increasingly interconnected. This is the engineering systems level.

MistaJacob: /* Engineering systems */

2015-09-28T20:29:34Z

Engineering systems

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	=Engineering systems=		=Engineering systems=
	[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|~~400px~~\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]		[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|350px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]
	The view that our modern lives are governed by engineering systems, articulated by de Weck et al.,<ref>de Weck, O. L., Roos, D., & Magee, C. L. (2011). ''Engineering systems: Meeting human needs in a complex technological world'', ch. 1 & 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - '''Annotation:''' The first two chapters of the book is about how the human inventions begin to be connected, create networks and infrastructure, along with some of the complications on the way. It defines how we went from simple inventions, through complex systems, to engineering systems where everything is interconnected. This view was adopted here as a help to explain why the complexity of the world only is on the rise, and that new tools are required to deal with it.</ref> is adopted to explain why the complexity of the world only goes one way, upwards. In short, they distinguish between three levels of systems: artifact, complex, and engineering. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of the following example. At artifact level we have inventions, e.g. cars, phones, the light bulb, etc. In themselves, they do not offer any real benefits to our lives. To utilize their potential, and to exploit their respective benefits, the right infrastructure has to be present. Continuing the above example, the needed infrastructure consists of: roads, public switched telephone network (PSTN), and the electrical power grid. This level of interconnectedness is defined as the complex systems level. Continuing further; the once isolated transportation, communication, and energy system, is now getting increasingly interconnected. This is the engineering systems level.		The view that our modern lives are governed by engineering systems, articulated by de Weck et al.,<ref>de Weck, O. L., Roos, D., & Magee, C. L. (2011). ''Engineering systems: Meeting human needs in a complex technological world'', ch. 1 & 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - '''Annotation:''' The first two chapters of the book is about how the human inventions begin to be connected, create networks and infrastructure, along with some of the complications on the way. It defines how we went from simple inventions, through complex systems, to engineering systems where everything is interconnected. This view was adopted here as a help to explain why the complexity of the world only is on the rise, and that new tools are required to deal with it.</ref> is adopted to explain why the complexity of the world only goes one way, upwards. In short, they distinguish between three levels of systems: artifact, complex, and engineering. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of the following example. At artifact level we have inventions, e.g. cars, phones, the light bulb, etc. In themselves, they do not offer any real benefits to our lives. To utilize their potential, and to exploit their respective benefits, the right infrastructure has to be present. Continuing the above example, the needed infrastructure consists of: roads, public switched telephone network (PSTN), and the electrical power grid. This level of interconnectedness is defined as the complex systems level. Continuing further; the once isolated transportation, communication, and energy system, is now getting increasingly interconnected. This is the engineering systems level.

MistaJacob: /* Complexity */

2015-09-28T19:13:43Z

Complexity

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	*The behaviour produced as a result of those interactions cannot be explained as the simple sum of the parts (emergent behaviour)		*The behaviour produced as a result of those interactions cannot be explained as the simple sum of the parts (emergent behaviour)

	In other words, a system contains a number of parts that can be connected in different ways. The parts can vary in type as well as the connections between them can. The number and types of parts and the number and types of the connections between them, determines the complexity of the system. Furthermore, incorporating a dynamic understanding of systems, both the parts and their connections changes over time. The social intricacy of human behaviour ~~are~~ one of the more significant reasons for this change. We do not always behave rationally and predictably, as will be further examined below, which increases the complexity of every system where humans are involved.		In other words, a system contains a number of parts that can be connected in different ways. The parts can vary in type as well as the connections between them can. The number and types of parts and the number and types of the connections between them, determines the complexity of the system. Furthermore, incorporating a dynamic understanding of systems, both the parts and their connections changes over time. The social intricacy of human behaviour is one of the more significant reasons for this change. We do not always behave rationally and predictably, as will be further examined below, which increases the complexity of every system where humans are involved.

	=Engineering systems=		=Engineering systems=
	[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|400px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]		[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|400px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]

MistaJacob: /* Engineering systems */

2015-09-28T19:08:16Z

Engineering systems

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	In other words, a system contains a number of parts that can be connected in different ways. The parts can vary in type as well as the connections between them can. The number and types of parts and the number and types of the connections between them, determines the complexity of the system. Furthermore, incorporating a dynamic understanding of systems, both the parts and their connections changes over time. The social intricacy of human behaviour are one of the more significant reasons for this change. We do not always behave rationally and predictably, as will be further examined below, which increases the complexity of every system where humans are involved.		In other words, a system contains a number of parts that can be connected in different ways. The parts can vary in type as well as the connections between them can. The number and types of parts and the number and types of the connections between them, determines the complexity of the system. Furthermore, incorporating a dynamic understanding of systems, both the parts and their connections changes over time. The social intricacy of human behaviour are one of the more significant reasons for this change. We do not always behave rationally and predictably, as will be further examined below, which increases the complexity of every system where humans are involved.
	=Engineering systems=		=Engineering systems=
	[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|~~350px~~\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]		[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|400px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]
	The view that our modern lives are governed by engineering systems, articulated by de Weck et al.,<ref>de Weck, O. L., Roos, D., & Magee, C. L. (2011). ''Engineering systems: Meeting human needs in a complex technological world'', ch. 1 & 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - '''Annotation:''' The first two chapters of the book is about how the human inventions begin to be connected, create networks and infrastructure, along with some of the complications on the way. It defines how we went from simple inventions, through complex systems, to engineering systems where everything is interconnected. This view was adopted here as a help to explain why the complexity of the world only is on the rise, and that new tools are required to deal with it.</ref> is adopted to explain why the complexity of the world only goes one way, upwards. In short, they distinguish between three levels of systems: artifact, complex, and engineering. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of the following example. At artifact level we have inventions, e.g. cars, phones, the light bulb, etc. In themselves, they do not offer any real benefits to our lives. To utilize their potential, and to exploit their respective benefits, the right infrastructure has to be present. Continuing the above example, the needed infrastructure consists of: roads, public switched telephone network (PSTN), and the electrical power grid. This level of interconnectedness is defined as the complex systems level. Continuing further; the once isolated transportation, communication, and energy system, is now getting increasingly interconnected. This is the engineering systems level.		The view that our modern lives are governed by engineering systems, articulated by de Weck et al.,<ref>de Weck, O. L., Roos, D., & Magee, C. L. (2011). ''Engineering systems: Meeting human needs in a complex technological world'', ch. 1 & 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - '''Annotation:''' The first two chapters of the book is about how the human inventions begin to be connected, create networks and infrastructure, along with some of the complications on the way. It defines how we went from simple inventions, through complex systems, to engineering systems where everything is interconnected. This view was adopted here as a help to explain why the complexity of the world only is on the rise, and that new tools are required to deal with it.</ref> is adopted to explain why the complexity of the world only goes one way, upwards. In short, they distinguish between three levels of systems: artifact, complex, and engineering. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of the following example. At artifact level we have inventions, e.g. cars, phones, the light bulb, etc. In themselves, they do not offer any real benefits to our lives. To utilize their potential, and to exploit their respective benefits, the right infrastructure has to be present. Continuing the above example, the needed infrastructure consists of: roads, public switched telephone network (PSTN), and the electrical power grid. This level of interconnectedness is defined as the complex systems level. Continuing further; the once isolated transportation, communication, and energy system, is now getting increasingly interconnected. This is the engineering systems level.

MistaJacob: /* Engineering systems */

2015-09-28T19:07:44Z

Engineering systems

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	In other words, a system contains a number of parts that can be connected in different ways. The parts can vary in type as well as the connections between them can. The number and types of parts and the number and types of the connections between them, determines the complexity of the system. Furthermore, incorporating a dynamic understanding of systems, both the parts and their connections changes over time. The social intricacy of human behaviour are one of the more significant reasons for this change. We do not always behave rationally and predictably, as will be further examined below, which increases the complexity of every system where humans are involved.		In other words, a system contains a number of parts that can be connected in different ways. The parts can vary in type as well as the connections between them can. The number and types of parts and the number and types of the connections between them, determines the complexity of the system. Furthermore, incorporating a dynamic understanding of systems, both the parts and their connections changes over time. The social intricacy of human behaviour are one of the more significant reasons for this change. We do not always behave rationally and predictably, as will be further examined below, which increases the complexity of every system where humans are involved.
	=Engineering systems=		=Engineering systems=
	[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|~~300px~~\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]		[[File:Threelevels2.jpg\|350px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 1:''' The three levels of systems - artefact, complex, and engineering. ''Source:'' <ref>(de Weck et al.,2011, p. 14)</ref>]]
	The view that our modern lives are governed by engineering systems, articulated by de Weck et al.,<ref>de Weck, O. L., Roos, D., & Magee, C. L. (2011). ''Engineering systems: Meeting human needs in a complex technological world'', ch. 1 & 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - '''Annotation:''' The first two chapters of the book is about how the human inventions begin to be connected, create networks and infrastructure, along with some of the complications on the way. It defines how we went from simple inventions, through complex systems, to engineering systems where everything is interconnected. This view was adopted here as a help to explain why the complexity of the world only is on the rise, and that new tools are required to deal with it.</ref> is adopted to explain why the complexity of the world only goes one way, upwards. In short, they distinguish between three levels of systems: artifact, complex, and engineering. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of the following example. At artifact level we have inventions, e.g. cars, phones, the light bulb, etc. In themselves, they do not offer any real benefits to our lives. To utilize their potential, and to exploit their respective benefits, the right infrastructure has to be present. Continuing the above example, the needed infrastructure consists of: roads, public switched telephone network (PSTN), and the electrical power grid. This level of interconnectedness is defined as the complex systems level. Continuing further; the once isolated transportation, communication, and energy system, is now getting increasingly interconnected. This is the engineering systems level.		The view that our modern lives are governed by engineering systems, articulated by de Weck et al.,<ref>de Weck, O. L., Roos, D., & Magee, C. L. (2011). ''Engineering systems: Meeting human needs in a complex technological world'', ch. 1 & 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - '''Annotation:''' The first two chapters of the book is about how the human inventions begin to be connected, create networks and infrastructure, along with some of the complications on the way. It defines how we went from simple inventions, through complex systems, to engineering systems where everything is interconnected. This view was adopted here as a help to explain why the complexity of the world only is on the rise, and that new tools are required to deal with it.</ref> is adopted to explain why the complexity of the world only goes one way, upwards. In short, they distinguish between three levels of systems: artifact, complex, and engineering. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of the following example. At artifact level we have inventions, e.g. cars, phones, the light bulb, etc. In themselves, they do not offer any real benefits to our lives. To utilize their potential, and to exploit their respective benefits, the right infrastructure has to be present. Continuing the above example, the needed infrastructure consists of: roads, public switched telephone network (PSTN), and the electrical power grid. This level of interconnectedness is defined as the complex systems level. Continuing further; the once isolated transportation, communication, and energy system, is now getting increasingly interconnected. This is the engineering systems level.

	One of the characteristics of our modern society and the engineering systems governing it, is that humans and technology cannot any longer be separated. Engineering systems are per definition socio-technical systems, which as described in the section above, only adds to the complexity. ''Without the right tools to analyse and understand them, complex systems become complicated: They confuse us, and we cannot control what happens or understand why''.<ref>(Oehmen et al., 2015, p. 5)</ref> Mindfulness and knowledge about cognitive biases are some of those tools that can be adopted to project management to help decomplicate the complexity.		One of the characteristics of our modern society and the engineering systems governing it, is that humans and technology cannot any longer be separated. Engineering systems are per definition socio-technical systems, which as described in the section above, only adds to the complexity. ''Without the right tools to analyse and understand them, complex systems become complicated: They confuse us, and we cannot control what happens or understand why''.<ref>(Oehmen et al., 2015, p. 5)</ref> Mindfulness and knowledge about cognitive biases are some of those tools that can be adopted to project management to help decomplicate the complexity.

	=Mindfulness=		=Mindfulness=
	Mindfulness is defined as:<ref>Definition of Mindfulness in English: ''Mindfulness''. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Sept. 2015. <http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mindfulness></ref> the quality or state of being conscious or aware of something. Weick & Sutcliffe further elaborated the definition:<ref>(Weick & Sutcliffe, 2001, p. 32)</ref> ''a rich awareness of discriminatory detail. By that we mean that when people act, they are aware of context, of ways in which details differ (in other words, they discriminate among details), and of deviations from their expectations''. Put in another way, the mindful project manager knows that simplicity is not a word suited to describe the world around us; and that even the smallest deviation from the expected can be symptoms of larger problems. To translate this mindset into a useful model, Weick & Sutcliffe<ref>Weick, K. E., & Sutcliffe, K. M., (2001). ''Managing the unexpected: Assuring high performance in an age of complexity''. San Francisco, CA: Wiley. - '''Annotation:''' Cited through (Oehmen et al., 2015)</ref> developed five principles of mindfulness, that could be used to increase the reliability of organizations. In other words, to enhance both the chance that an organization can prevent possibly disastrous unexpected events, as well as making a rapid recovery if they do happen. These principles are therefore well suited to deal with the intrinsic uncertainty of human behaviour and the complexity it brings to organizations. The principles are:		Mindfulness is defined as:<ref>Definition of Mindfulness in English: ''Mindfulness''. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Sept. 2015. <http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mindfulness></ref> the quality or state of being conscious or aware of something. Weick & Sutcliffe further elaborated the definition:<ref>(Weick & Sutcliffe, 2001, p. 32)</ref> ''a rich awareness of discriminatory detail. By that we mean that when people act, they are aware of context, of ways in which details differ (in other words, they discriminate among details), and of deviations from their expectations''. Put in another way, the mindful project manager knows that simplicity is not a word suited to describe the world around us; and that even the smallest deviation from the expected can be symptoms of larger problems. To translate this mindset into a useful model, Weick & Sutcliffe<ref>Weick, K. E., & Sutcliffe, K. M., (2001). ''Managing the unexpected: Assuring high performance in an age of complexity''. San Francisco, CA: Wiley. - '''Annotation:''' Cited through (Oehmen et al., 2015)</ref> developed five principles of mindfulness, that could be used to increase the reliability of organizations. In other words, to enhance both the chance that an organization can prevent possibly disastrous unexpected events, as well as making a rapid recovery if they do happen. These principles are therefore well suited to deal with the intrinsic uncertainty of human behaviour and the complexity it brings to organizations. The principles are:

MistaJacob: /* The Two Ways of Thinking */

2015-09-28T18:36:25Z

The Two Ways of Thinking

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	Now consider the following math problem.		Now consider the following math problem, and try to solve it.

	:::::::: 13 x 27		:::::::: 13 x 27
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	This division of labour is highly efficient. It minimizes effort, and optimizes performance.<ref name="k" /> In general, this constellation works well because System 1 is very good at what it does. Its model of the world is usually accurate; and its short-term predictions of the future, and the suggestions for System 2 that follows, are ordinarily appropriate. As we shall see though, System 1 has biases, and is prone to systematic errors in specific circumstances.		This division of labour is highly efficient. It minimizes effort, and optimizes performance.<ref name="k" /> In general, this constellation works well because System 1 is very good at what it does. Its model of the world is usually accurate; and its short-term predictions of the future, and the suggestions for System 2 that follows, are ordinarily appropriate. As we shall see though, System 1 has biases, and is prone to systematic errors in specific circumstances.

	=Conflict and Illusions=		=Conflict and Illusions=
	Figure 3 is a variant of many similar experiments that induces conflict between System 1 and System 2. Before reading on, try to say (out loud, or whispering) the ''colour'' of the words.		Figure 3 is a variant of many similar experiments that induces conflict between System 1 and System 2. Before reading on, try to say (out loud, or whispering) the ''colour'' of the words.

MistaJacob: /* Further Readings */

2015-09-28T18:33:30Z

MistaJacob at 18:31, 28 September 2015

2015-09-28T18:31:56Z

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	This article will address how knowledge about, mindfulness, the workings of the mind, and the related cognitive biases that follows; can be used as tools to better deal with high-risk decisions in an inherently dynamic and complex world.		This article will address how knowledge about, mindfulness, the workings of the mind, and the related cognitive biases that follows; can be used as tools to better deal with high-risk decisions in an inherently dynamic and complex world.

	The focus will be in the area of “project, program, and portfolio management”, that for the ease of reading, only will be denoted as “project management” in the remainder of the article.		The focus will be in the area of “project, program, and portfolio management”, that for the ease of reading, only will be denoted “project management” in the remainder of the article.

	Before introducing the concepts of mindfulness and cognitive biases, a short introduction to complexity and the thinking behind “engineering systems” is necessary, as to explain their relevance and usefulness.		Before introducing the concepts of mindfulness and cognitive biases, a short introduction to complexity and the thinking behind “engineering systems” is necessary, as to explain their relevance and usefulness.

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:33, 28 September 2015
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	*[http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/List_of_Common_Cognitive_Biases_and_Other_Workings_of_the_Mind#Exaggerated_Emotional_Coherence_.28The_Halo_Effect.29 The halo effect].		*[http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/List_of_Common_Cognitive_Biases_and_Other_Workings_of_the_Mind#Exaggerated_Emotional_Coherence_.28The_Halo_Effect.29 The halo effect].
	*[http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/List_of_Common_Cognitive_Biases_and_Other_Workings_of_the_Mind#What_You_See_Is_All_There_Is_.28WYSIATI.29 What You See Is All There Is] (WYSIATI).		*[http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/List_of_Common_Cognitive_Biases_and_Other_Workings_of_the_Mind#What_You_See_Is_All_There_Is_.28WYSIATI.29 What You See Is All There Is] (WYSIATI).
	**Which explains, among many others: ~~Overconfidence~~ effect, framing ~~effects~~, jumping to conclusions, etc.		**Which explains, among many others: overconfidence effect, framing effect, jumping to conclusions, etc.
	*Outcome bias.		*Outcome bias.
	**When a decision is judged by its outcome, and not whether the decision process was sound.		**When a decision is judged by its outcome, and not whether the decision process was sound.
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	*Answering an easier question.		*Answering an easier question.
	**System 1 substitutes a difficult question with an easier one, and answers that instead. Often without you (System 2) realizing that the difficult question has not been answered.<ref>(Kahneman, 2011, p. 97-99)</ref>		**System 1 substitutes a difficult question with an easier one, and answers that instead. Often without you (System 2) realizing that the difficult question has not been answered.<ref>(Kahneman, 2011, p. 97-99)</ref>

	=Conclusion=		=Conclusion=
	As described in the beginning, our society is governed by engineering systems where humans and technology are inherently intertwined. This raises the complexity and increases the number of high-risk decisions people have to make in many different professions, where project management is only one of them. If you find yourself in a position where you regularly have to make these kind of decisions, the five principles of mindfulness and knowledge about cognitive biases are tools that can help you make the right choices. In respect to the latter, familiarizing yourself with how your mind can trick you, is the only way to prevent cognitive biases from having a negative impact. Daniel Kahneman’s book: ''Thinking, Fast and Slow'' will do that for you.		As described in the beginning, our society is governed by engineering systems where humans and technology are inherently intertwined. This raises the complexity and increases the number of high-risk decisions people have to make in many different professions, where project management is only one of them. If you find yourself in a position where you regularly have to make these kind of decisions, the five principles of mindfulness and knowledge about cognitive biases are tools that can help you make the right choices. In respect to the latter, familiarizing yourself with how your mind can trick you, is the only way to prevent cognitive biases from having a negative impact. Daniel Kahneman’s book: ''Thinking, Fast and Slow'' will do that for you.