Simon's four levels of control

2019-05-17T09:30:52Z

Tkokotas:

Project Control

2019-05-17T09:30:14Z

Tkokotas:

Project Control

2019-05-17T09:29:51Z

Tkokotas:

*Disclaimer: The articles are created by DTU students. As part of the course, students are introduced to knowledge related to IP rights, plagiarism and copyright infringement. Additionally, the articles are a product of critical engagement of students with the literature review, and their aim is to contribute to the Project Management holistic field of science. If you discover any potential copyright infringement on the site, please inform thereof by sending an email to ophavsret@dtu.dk.

''Developed by Konstantinos Vontas''

==Abstract==
The project is a temporary one-time undertaking, that has a definable goal, interrelated and dependent activities tasks and is finite in duration. In some point, all the projects are unique, they provide a unique product, service or information. Every project operates under some constrains such as time, cost and quality. Every Project has 5 basic phases according to PMI.<ref>PMI, ''https://www.projectinsight.net/project-management-basics/basic-project-management-phases'', Project Insight, 2017) </ref>. Initiation, Planning, Execution, Monitoring and Control and Close of the Project. In this article, the Project Monitoring and Control will be examined. The goal of project control is detecting potential problems or opportunities during project execution, by measuring the deviations from the baseline schedule. The project managers will compare project status and continue to the actual plan, as resources perform the scheduled work. In addition, during Project Control, project managers may have to adjust schedules or do what is needed to keep the project on track. In case of having differences between that execution and the planning phase, this does not mean necessarily the project plan needs to be changed, however these differences should be reviewed and determined if any action is necessary. Project control is considered very important because it may determine the success of the project by the stakeholders <ref>PMI, ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge 4th Edition'', Project Management Institute Inc,(Pennsylvania: PMI, 2008, Chapter 3, 59) </ref>. Project success is relevant to project cost, completion date, customer expectations, performance, quality, etc.

[[File:No7.jpg|thumb|Right: The 5 phases of a project in respect of time and level of activity|upright=3.2|alt=The 5 phases of a project in respect of time and level of activity]]

[[File:No0.jpg|thumb|left|upright=3.0|alt=Map of the world. Control as part of the five important ohases of a project]]

[[Category:Project Management]][[Category:Complexity]][[Category:Timeline]][[Category:Change Management‏‎]]

==The Role of Project Controller==

According to PMI <ref>PMI, ''https://www.pmi.org/about/learn-about-pmi/what-is-project-management'', What is Project Management, 2017) </ref> the definition of the project management is “the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to a broad range of activities in order to meet the requirements of a particular project." The process of directing and controlling a project from start to finish may be further divided into 5 basic phases:
#Conception and Initiation
# Definition & Planning
# Launch or Execution
# Monitor & Control
# Project Close
The project control, is the 4th phase “Monitor & Control”. Even if the word “control” gives the impression that the project control is only involving the 4th phase of a project, the reality Is different. The Project Control team involves from the initiation stage until the closeout of the project in order to ensure a successful control of the project. Project controllers are involvement from the initiation stage is due to the fact that is the one who will make an estimation of the overall budget as well as the delivery schedule of the project.
As soon as the the planning of the project starts, the Project Controller helps with the planning of the cost and the schedule. In addition, the Project Controls team has a significant involvement throughout the entire project lifecycle.
Even though Project Controller seems to be very similar to Project Manager, actually there are t differences between those two. For example one of the biggest challenges of a Project Manager is to create a harmony between the four main constrains in a project “Scope, Cost, Time, Quality”. Project controller helps the Project Manager in the management of the time and the cost of the project.

==Cost Management, Cost Control and Time Managent==

Cost management is a part of the project control and involves not only managing the budget, but also planning, and preparing for potential risks. Risks can set projects back and sometimes even require unexpected expenses. Preparation for these setbacks can save time and money. Cost management involves overall planning, co-ordination, and control and reporting of all cost-related aspects from “project initiation” to “operation and maintenance”.

The Cost Control, regardless of the size of the company is equally important. However, smaller companies tend to have tighter monetary controls, mainly due to the risk of failure. Larger companies may have the luxury to spread project losses over several projects, but the small companies may have few projects. Cost control is not only "monitoring" of costs and recording huge amount of data, but also analyzing of the data in order to take corrective action before it is too late.

The Cost Controllers may use the following methods/functions for more efficient work:

#Use cost management software for more precise and reliable estimations
#Making Monthly KPI (key performance indicators) reporting
#Ensure alignment with scheduling (current budget hours used)
#Monitoring the project progress, manpower and productivity by discipline
#Ensure alignment with scheduling (use working hours according to the plan)
#Coordinate with Contractor’s project controls team to ensure accuracy and timeliness of contractor’s project controls deliverables.

;Time Management

An accurate time estimation is essential for a successful project completion. Reasons of right time management is that the time estimates and drive the deadlines of delivery and planning of the project. If the time estimation will not be accurate enough, then will impact another people’s assessment of reliability of the company. Moreover, the time estimation many times determines the pricing of contracts, if there will be delays in the project delivery may be a financial penalty from the customer (depending on the contract).

*Some of the tactics that project controllers use for time managements are:
*Create baseline schedules
*Provide input to the project progress report
*Create schedule ‘what-if scenarios’ for strategic planning by project management
*Assist with notification of schedules delay to clients
*Create progress measurement graphs (S-Curves) to track the current status of the project

Studies have been conducted by Sabeghi et al. <ref>Narjes Sabeghi, Hamed R.Tareghian, Erik Demeulemeester, Hasan Taheri , ''Determining the timing of project control points using a facility location model and simulation'', Computers & Operations Research 61 69–80, 2015) </ref> in order to determine the right timing of project control throughout a project. In this case an adapted version of the facility location model (FLM) was developed so the optimal timing of project control in a project life cycle can be found. In addition simulation model were conducted so the best possible disruptions in the time period between the start of the project and the first control point. The study concludes that the FLM is flexible enough to find the timing of control points using weight functions that define the important sections of any project. Moreover, the performance of this method was compared with another approaches by Raz and Erel <ref>Raz T, Erel E. , ''Optimal timing of project control points'', Eur Journal Operational Research 127:252–61, 2000) </ref> that also utilize an analytical method to find the right timing of control points. The results showed that this model had better timing of the control points. That gives as a result that the disrupted project was completed with less delays.

==How to understand when project controller is needed?==

There are three main indicators, “Performance”, “Time”, “Cost”. The primitive indicators are:

*More resources or less resources haven been used than planned
*Activities are taking long than planned
*Cost of activity (or of project to date) is higher than expected

They called primitive because they may be biased and it is not consider that progress may be overestimated or underestimated due to execution of unscheduled work done, or execution of more work of low value and less work of high value

==Resources and Elements of project Control==

[[File:No1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The 4M management method]]

The 4M management method is a key method in this case and is the use of management engineering methods. 4M is the ISO quality management system in one of the elements. The 4 M’s stands for:

*Money
*Machinery
*Manpower
*Materials

The Manpower or “Human Resources Control” is responsible for hiring staff with needed skills as well as assign staff with specific skills to specific activities, but also to lay-off any underperforming staff. However, any move should be examined carefully before will be implemented.
The Machinery or “Physical Asset Control” is about decommissioning any underperforming equipment and instead bring in equipment with appropriate capabilities. In both of the cases any equipment decision may involve economic analysis and extra cost.
The Money or “Financial Resource Control” is about determine the amount of money that should be spent and how/where should be spent, in this case the Project Manager is assisted by Project Accountant and Project Finance Manager.
Regarding Materials new sources of superior Materials should be seek.

==Desired characteristics of a project control mechanism==

Project control should fulfil some desire characteristics such as:

*Flexible: it should be able to react to changes in system performance
*Cost-effective: Value of PC should exceed cost of project control
*Useful: Must really satisfy the needs of project, not the whims of the PM
*Timely: Be able to react quickly before the problem overwhelms the project
*Simple: Easy to understand and operate
*Adjustable: Capable of being adjusted to reflect changing priorities
*Documented: so that training in the future to be possible

;Key Performance Indicators in Project Control

Project managers will use key performance indicators (KPIs) to determine if the project is on track. A PM will typically pick two to five of these KPIs to measure project performance:
#Project Objectives: Be aware if a project is on schedule and budget is an indication if the project will meet stakeholder objectives.
#Effort and Cost Tracking: The Project Manager will explore for the effort and cost of resources to see if the budget is on track. This type of tracking informs if a #project will meet its completion date based on current performance.
#Project Performance: This monitors changes in the project. It takes into consideration the amount and types of issues that arise and how quickly they are addressed.
These can occur from unforeseen hurdles and scope changes.

==Scope Control==

[[File:No3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A four step solution is usually implemented for a Scope Control]]

Scope control is a method that is used as a part of control project. The reason of implementing Scope Control process is to recognize and manage all the elements that will possible rise or lower the project scope more than the required or defined wish of the initial approved Project Scope Statement . Two are characteristics of scope control. First, the determination of the scope when changes have implemented and second the management of the changes that have been implemented. Scope Control is considered very important occurrence that is possible to change every phase of the project life cycle. This changes may come for the need in a change deliverable that may affect its functionality, but also the amount of resources and work that is demanded for the completion of the project <ref>Kenneth R. Bainey. , ''IT project management delivery processes'', Artech House, Chapter 4.3.1.4, 171, 2004) </ref>.

;Scope Control System

Due to the fact that any scope change in a project will desire extra funds, time and resources, an agreement of all the stakeholders of the project should be prepared to discuss every possible change and impact that may occur to the project <ref>Jesse Kivilä, Miia Martinsuo, Lauri Vuorinen , ''Sustainable project management through project control in infrastructure projects'', International Journal of Project Management 35, 1167–1183, 2017 </ref> . When a final decision will be agreed for increasing or reducing the scope, the changes should be signed and documented as a matter of formal scope control. In addition, the changes should be authorized by all members of the committee.

The impact of the scope change will be recognized during the Planning Phase process and documents like Work Breakdown Structure and Project Schedule. This document will need to be re-examined and updated so they will include this time the scope change impact. The PM should communicate clearly and effectively about the scope changes, to the project team. So, the project team will be able to realize how the scope will impact their roles in the project.

;Schedule control

The Schedule control usually is managed by the PM. However, it is crucial the customer to be informed that a schedule change has or will be happened. In addition, the customer should be aware of what is being implemented to resolve the problem and the potential impact on the project performance, time line and deliverable.
The schedule issues may occur from many reasons, but it must be a single and focused method for dealing with the schedule changes. When the problem is discovered, is should be investigated as soon as possible. Subsequently, a plan mast be created for correcting the problem in the shortest allowable time but also with the smaller impact. Cost consideration may be also taken into account.

==Risk Control==

[[File:No5.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The 3 phases of risk control]]

The execution of the Risk Management Plan is by big percentage consisted by risk Control. Risk control is an action that implemented for managing and monitoring expected and unexpected changes in a Project <ref>Jack R. Meredith, Samuel J. Manthel, Jr. , ''Project Management - A Managerial Approch'', Chapter 2 Strategic Management and Project Selection, 58, 2009) </ref>. It is important to understand that risk controlling is intended to be a daily, on-going process throughout the entire project lifecycle. Project team members and stakeholders should be encouraged to be aware in looking for risk symptoms, as well as for new project risks. Newly identified risks and symptoms of previously identified risks should be communicated immediately for evaluation and/or action.
When changes that include risks occur the following 3 phases are implemented:

<ol style="list-style-type: lower-roman;">
<li>Identification</li>
<li>Qualify / Quantify</li>
<li>Respond</li>
</ol>

The correct identification of risks is essential for the success of a project. An effective tool that is used for risk identification and control is the technique called “Workarounds”. According to PMI <ref>Project Management Knowledge, ''https://project-management-knowledge.com/definitions/w/workaround/'',PMI Workarounds, 2017) </ref>] the workarounds are responses to any unidentified risks that occur throughout the project execution. Workarounds are unplanned in the sense that the response was not defined in advance of the risk event occurring. When the risk event was not expected or the effect was greater that it was predicted the planned response may not be satisfactory. If this happens, it is required to repeat the response process and the risk quantification process, but also more risk response may be necessary.

==Quality Control==

Quality control is the application of the principles of manufacturing quality control to a project processes, including defect prevention, inspection, and reporting of quality issues <ref>Harvey Maylor. , ''Project Management - Fourth Edition'', Chapter 9.2, 202, 2009) </ref>. The quality control is performed by the Quality Engineering (QE) involves the control of specific project results to determine if they satisfy relevant quality standards and identifying how to exclude causes of unsatisfactory results. The quality control should be performed throughout the project. The project results include both product results like deliverables and management results like cost and schedule performance. Every project must have a QE in order to work with the PM and develop a Quality Management Plan. In addition the plan should be particularly for that project using agency quality instructions with input from the customer and other stakeholders. The project management team should have knowledge and experience in statistical quality control (sampling and probabilities) so they can help to evaluate quality control outputs. The Project management team should be aware for important things such as, tolerances and control limits as well as unusual events and common causes.

==Annotated Bibliography==

;Harvey Maylor ”Project management”, Fourth Edition-Financial Times Prentice Hall (2009)

This book is designed to provide to its readers an integrated view of Project Management. It explanes all the phases of a project and it uses new techniques that have been already implemented by some best-practise companies to improve their project management performance. As an example, it shows how the disciplines used by Toyota and Dr. Deming approaches can be used in any kind of project and industry. Moreover, practical case-studies and academic discussions are included in the end of each chapter.

;Jesse Kivilä, Miia Martinsuo, Lauri Vuorinen “Sustainable project management through project control in infrastructure projects” International Journal of Project management 35 (2017) 1167–1183

The article of Kivilä et al. shows a qualitative study that was conducted on a large infrastructure project involving many stakeholders. The challenging thing in this study is that the project control is complemented with sustainable project governance, connecting the project to its external stakeholders and regulations.

;Narjes Sabeghi, Hamed R.Tareghian, Erik Demeulemeester, Hasan Taheri “Determining the timing of project control points using a facility location model and simulation” Computers & Operations Research 61(2015)69–80

This article is about a study for project control that has been done in unstable conditions. It states that the most important think in the control phase is the right timing so it can be costly efficient. It is used an adapted version of the facility location model (FLM) so the optimal timing can be found. Later a simulation model is used so, the possible disruptions in the time period between the beginning of the project and the first control point to be predicted.

==References==

<references />

Project Control

2019-05-17T09:29:17Z

Tkokotas: /* Cost Management, Cost Control and Time Managent */

''Developed by Konstantinos Vontas''

==Abstract==
The project is a temporary one-time undertaking, that has a definable goal, interrelated and dependent activities tasks and is finite in duration. In some point, all the projects are unique, they provide a unique product, service or information. Every project operates under some constrains such as time, cost and quality. Every Project has 5 basic phases according to PMI.<ref>PMI, ''https://www.projectinsight.net/project-management-basics/basic-project-management-phases'', Project Insight, 2017) </ref>. Initiation, Planning, Execution, Monitoring and Control and Close of the Project. In this article, the Project Monitoring and Control will be examined. The goal of project control is detecting potential problems or opportunities during project execution, by measuring the deviations from the baseline schedule. The project managers will compare project status and continue to the actual plan, as resources perform the scheduled work. In addition, during Project Control, project managers may have to adjust schedules or do what is needed to keep the project on track. In case of having differences between that execution and the planning phase, this does not mean necessarily the project plan needs to be changed, however these differences should be reviewed and determined if any action is necessary. Project control is considered very important because it may determine the success of the project by the stakeholders <ref>PMI, ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge 4th Edition'', Project Management Institute Inc,(Pennsylvania: PMI, 2008, Chapter 3, 59) </ref>. Project success is relevant to project cost, completion date, customer expectations, performance, quality, etc.

[[File:No7.jpg|thumb|Right: The 5 phases of a project in respect of time and level of activity|upright=3.2|alt=The 5 phases of a project in respect of time and level of activity]]

[[File:No0.jpg|thumb|left|upright=3.0|alt=Map of the world. Control as part of the five important ohases of a project]]

[[Category:Project Management]][[Category:Complexity]][[Category:Timeline]][[Category:Change Management‏‎]]

==The Role of Project Controller==

According to PMI <ref>PMI, ''https://www.pmi.org/about/learn-about-pmi/what-is-project-management'', What is Project Management, 2017) </ref> the definition of the project management is “the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to a broad range of activities in order to meet the requirements of a particular project." The process of directing and controlling a project from start to finish may be further divided into 5 basic phases:
#Conception and Initiation
# Definition & Planning
# Launch or Execution
# Monitor & Control
# Project Close
The project control, is the 4th phase “Monitor & Control”. Even if the word “control” gives the impression that the project control is only involving the 4th phase of a project, the reality Is different. The Project Control team involves from the initiation stage until the closeout of the project in order to ensure a successful control of the project. Project controllers are involvement from the initiation stage is due to the fact that is the one who will make an estimation of the overall budget as well as the delivery schedule of the project.
As soon as the the planning of the project starts, the Project Controller helps with the planning of the cost and the schedule. In addition, the Project Controls team has a significant involvement throughout the entire project lifecycle.
Even though Project Controller seems to be very similar to Project Manager, actually there are t differences between those two. For example one of the biggest challenges of a Project Manager is to create a harmony between the four main constrains in a project “Scope, Cost, Time, Quality”. Project controller helps the Project Manager in the management of the time and the cost of the project.

==Cost Management, Cost Control and Time Managent==

Cost management is a part of the project control and involves not only managing the budget, but also planning, and preparing for potential risks. Risks can set projects back and sometimes even require unexpected expenses. Preparation for these setbacks can save time and money. Cost management involves overall planning, co-ordination, and control and reporting of all cost-related aspects from “project initiation” to “operation and maintenance”.

The Cost Control, regardless of the size of the company is equally important. However, smaller companies tend to have tighter monetary controls, mainly due to the risk of failure. Larger companies may have the luxury to spread project losses over several projects, but the small companies may have few projects. Cost control is not only "monitoring" of costs and recording huge amount of data, but also analyzing of the data in order to take corrective action before it is too late.

The Cost Controllers may use the following methods/functions for more efficient work:

#Use cost management software for more precise and reliable estimations
#Making Monthly KPI (key performance indicators) reporting
#Ensure alignment with scheduling (current budget hours used)
#Monitoring the project progress, manpower and productivity by discipline
#Ensure alignment with scheduling (use working hours according to the plan)
#Coordinate with Contractor’s project controls team to ensure accuracy and timeliness of contractor’s project controls deliverables.

;Time Management

An accurate time estimation is essential for a successful project completion. Reasons of right time management is that the time estimates and drive the deadlines of delivery and planning of the project. If the time estimation will not be accurate enough, then will impact another people’s assessment of reliability of the company. Moreover, the time estimation many times determines the pricing of contracts, if there will be delays in the project delivery may be a financial penalty from the customer (depending on the contract).

*Some of the tactics that project controllers use for time managements are:
*Create baseline schedules
*Provide input to the project progress report
*Create schedule ‘what-if scenarios’ for strategic planning by project management
*Assist with notification of schedules delay to clients
*Create progress measurement graphs (S-Curves) to track the current status of the project

Studies have been conducted by Sabeghi et al. <ref>Narjes Sabeghi, Hamed R.Tareghian, Erik Demeulemeester, Hasan Taheri , ''Determining the timing of project control points using a facility location model and simulation'', Computers & Operations Research 61 69–80, 2015) </ref> in order to determine the right timing of project control throughout a project. In this case an adapted version of the facility location model (FLM) was developed so the optimal timing of project control in a project life cycle can be found. In addition simulation model were conducted so the best possible disruptions in the time period between the start of the project and the first control point. The study concludes that the FLM is flexible enough to find the timing of control points using weight functions that define the important sections of any project. Moreover, the performance of this method was compared with another approaches by Raz and Erel <ref>Raz T, Erel E. , ''Optimal timing of project control points'', Eur Journal Operational Research 127:252–61, 2000) </ref> that also utilize an analytical method to find the right timing of control points. The results showed that this model had better timing of the control points. That gives as a result that the disrupted project was completed with less delays.

==How to understand when project controller is needed?==

There are three main indicators, “Performance”, “Time”, “Cost”. The primitive indicators are:

*More resources or less resources haven been used than planned
*Activities are taking long than planned
*Cost of activity (or of project to date) is higher than expected

They called primitive because they may be biased and it is not consider that progress may be overestimated or underestimated due to execution of unscheduled work done, or execution of more work of low value and less work of high value

==Resources and Elements of project Control==

[[File:No1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The 4M management method]]

The 4M management method is a key method in this case and is the use of management engineering methods. 4M is the ISO quality management system in one of the elements. The 4 M’s stands for:

*Money
*Machinery
*Manpower
*Materials

The Manpower or “Human Resources Control” is responsible for hiring staff with needed skills as well as assign staff with specific skills to specific activities, but also to lay-off any underperforming staff. However, any move should be examined carefully before will be implemented.
The Machinery or “Physical Asset Control” is about decommissioning any underperforming equipment and instead bring in equipment with appropriate capabilities. In both of the cases any equipment decision may involve economic analysis and extra cost.
The Money or “Financial Resource Control” is about determine the amount of money that should be spent and how/where should be spent, in this case the Project Manager is assisted by Project Accountant and Project Finance Manager.
Regarding Materials new sources of superior Materials should be seek.

==Desired characteristics of a project control mechanism==

Project control should fulfil some desire characteristics such as:

*Flexible: it should be able to react to changes in system performance
*Cost-effective: Value of PC should exceed cost of project control
*Useful: Must really satisfy the needs of project, not the whims of the PM
*Timely: Be able to react quickly before the problem overwhelms the project
*Simple: Easy to understand and operate
*Adjustable: Capable of being adjusted to reflect changing priorities
*Documented: so that training in the future to be possible

;Key Performance Indicators in Project Control

Project managers will use key performance indicators (KPIs) to determine if the project is on track. A PM will typically pick two to five of these KPIs to measure project performance:
#Project Objectives: Be aware if a project is on schedule and budget is an indication if the project will meet stakeholder objectives.
#Effort and Cost Tracking: The Project Manager will explore for the effort and cost of resources to see if the budget is on track. This type of tracking informs if a #project will meet its completion date based on current performance.
#Project Performance: This monitors changes in the project. It takes into consideration the amount and types of issues that arise and how quickly they are addressed.
These can occur from unforeseen hurdles and scope changes.

==Scope Control==

[[File:No3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A four step solution is usually implemented for a Scope Control]]

Scope control is a method that is used as a part of control project. The reason of implementing Scope Control process is to recognize and manage all the elements that will possible rise or lower the project scope more than the required or defined wish of the initial approved Project Scope Statement . Two are characteristics of scope control. First, the determination of the scope when changes have implemented and second the management of the changes that have been implemented. Scope Control is considered very important occurrence that is possible to change every phase of the project life cycle. This changes may come for the need in a change deliverable that may affect its functionality, but also the amount of resources and work that is demanded for the completion of the project <ref>Kenneth R. Bainey. , ''IT project management delivery processes'', Artech House, Chapter 4.3.1.4, 171, 2004) </ref>.

;Scope Control System

Due to the fact that any scope change in a project will desire extra funds, time and resources, an agreement of all the stakeholders of the project should be prepared to discuss every possible change and impact that may occur to the project <ref>Jesse Kivilä, Miia Martinsuo, Lauri Vuorinen , ''Sustainable project management through project control in infrastructure projects'', International Journal of Project Management 35, 1167–1183, 2017 </ref> . When a final decision will be agreed for increasing or reducing the scope, the changes should be signed and documented as a matter of formal scope control. In addition, the changes should be authorized by all members of the committee.

The impact of the scope change will be recognized during the Planning Phase process and documents like Work Breakdown Structure and Project Schedule. This document will need to be re-examined and updated so they will include this time the scope change impact. The PM should communicate clearly and effectively about the scope changes, to the project team. So, the project team will be able to realize how the scope will impact their roles in the project.

;Schedule control

The Schedule control usually is managed by the PM. However, it is crucial the customer to be informed that a schedule change has or will be happened. In addition, the customer should be aware of what is being implemented to resolve the problem and the potential impact on the project performance, time line and deliverable.
The schedule issues may occur from many reasons, but it must be a single and focused method for dealing with the schedule changes. When the problem is discovered, is should be investigated as soon as possible. Subsequently, a plan mast be created for correcting the problem in the shortest allowable time but also with the smaller impact. Cost consideration may be also taken into account.

==Risk Control==

[[File:No5.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The 3 phases of risk control]]

The execution of the Risk Management Plan is by big percentage consisted by risk Control. Risk control is an action that implemented for managing and monitoring expected and unexpected changes in a Project <ref>Jack R. Meredith, Samuel J. Manthel, Jr. , ''Project Management - A Managerial Approch'', Chapter 2 Strategic Management and Project Selection, 58, 2009) </ref>. It is important to understand that risk controlling is intended to be a daily, on-going process throughout the entire project lifecycle. Project team members and stakeholders should be encouraged to be aware in looking for risk symptoms, as well as for new project risks. Newly identified risks and symptoms of previously identified risks should be communicated immediately for evaluation and/or action.
When changes that include risks occur the following 3 phases are implemented:

<ol style="list-style-type: lower-roman;">
<li>Identification</li>
<li>Qualify / Quantify</li>
<li>Respond</li>
</ol>

The correct identification of risks is essential for the success of a project. An effective tool that is used for risk identification and control is the technique called “Workarounds”. According to PMI <ref>Project Management Knowledge, ''https://project-management-knowledge.com/definitions/w/workaround/'',PMI Workarounds, 2017) </ref>] the workarounds are responses to any unidentified risks that occur throughout the project execution. Workarounds are unplanned in the sense that the response was not defined in advance of the risk event occurring. When the risk event was not expected or the effect was greater that it was predicted the planned response may not be satisfactory. If this happens, it is required to repeat the response process and the risk quantification process, but also more risk response may be necessary.

==Quality Control==

Quality control is the application of the principles of manufacturing quality control to a project processes, including defect prevention, inspection, and reporting of quality issues <ref>Harvey Maylor. , ''Project Management - Fourth Edition'', Chapter 9.2, 202, 2009) </ref>. The quality control is performed by the Quality Engineering (QE) involves the control of specific project results to determine if they satisfy relevant quality standards and identifying how to exclude causes of unsatisfactory results. The quality control should be performed throughout the project. The project results include both product results like deliverables and management results like cost and schedule performance. Every project must have a QE in order to work with the PM and develop a Quality Management Plan. In addition the plan should be particularly for that project using agency quality instructions with input from the customer and other stakeholders. The project management team should have knowledge and experience in statistical quality control (sampling and probabilities) so they can help to evaluate quality control outputs. The Project management team should be aware for important things such as, tolerances and control limits as well as unusual events and common causes.

==Annotated Bibliography==

;Harvey Maylor ”Project management”, Fourth Edition-Financial Times Prentice Hall (2009)

This book is designed to provide to its readers an integrated view of Project Management. It explanes all the phases of a project and it uses new techniques that have been already implemented by some best-practise companies to improve their project management performance. As an example, it shows how the disciplines used by Toyota and Dr. Deming approaches can be used in any kind of project and industry. Moreover, practical case-studies and academic discussions are included in the end of each chapter.

;Jesse Kivilä, Miia Martinsuo, Lauri Vuorinen “Sustainable project management through project control in infrastructure projects” International Journal of Project management 35 (2017) 1167–1183

The article of Kivilä et al. shows a qualitative study that was conducted on a large infrastructure project involving many stakeholders. The challenging thing in this study is that the project control is complemented with sustainable project governance, connecting the project to its external stakeholders and regulations.

;Narjes Sabeghi, Hamed R.Tareghian, Erik Demeulemeester, Hasan Taheri “Determining the timing of project control points using a facility location model and simulation” Computers & Operations Research 61(2015)69–80

This article is about a study for project control that has been done in unstable conditions. It states that the most important think in the control phase is the right timing so it can be costly efficient. It is used an adapted version of the facility location model (FLM) so the optimal timing can be found. Later a simulation model is used so, the possible disruptions in the time period between the beginning of the project and the first control point to be predicted.

==References==

<references />

Stage-Gate Process

2019-05-17T09:27:35Z

Tkokotas:

''*Disclaimer: The articles are created by DTU students. As part of the course, students are introduced to knowledge related to IP rights, plagiarism and copyright infringement. Additionally, the articles are a product of critical engagement of students with the literature review, and their aim is to contribute to the Project Management holistic field of science. If you discover any potential copyright infringement on the site, please inform thereof by sending an email to ophavsret@dtu.dk.''

''Developed by Cornelis Johannes Jongenelen''

==Abstract==
'''The Stage-Gate Process''' (also referred to as ''Phase-Gate Process'') is a project management tool, dividing the time horizon of a project into several information-gathering ''stages''. These stages are separated by so-called ''gates'', which represent go/kill/recycle/hold decisions for the project. The concept was introduced by R.G. Cooper in his book 'Winning At New Products' (1986)<ref name="Cooper1986"> Cooper, R.G. (1986). Winning At New Products. Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201136651</ref>.

The central background of the Stage-Gate Process is rooted in the fact that companies have limited resources (e.g. time, money & capital goods).
To make effective use of the available resources and to manage risks, a firm has to develop its project portfolio in a manner that only the most promising/beneficial projects are put through.
Regular Stage-Gate Processes include 4 to 8 stages, but stages can be skipped depending on the preferences of the company <ref name"Oconnor1994"> O'Connor, P. (1994). From Experience; Implementing Stage-Gate Process: A Multi-Company Perspective. ''Journal of Product innovation Management''. Vol 11. pp 183-200</ref><ref name="Cooper2008"> Cooper, R.G. (2008). Perspective: The Stage-Gate Idea-to-Launch Process — Update What’s New, and NexGen Systems, Product Development & Management Association, ''Journal of Product Innovation Management''. Vol. 25. pp 213–232</ref>.
The evaluation criteria at each gate are discussed upfront with the project group and are acted upon by the ''gatekeeper'' during a ''gate meeting''.
Each gate decision should be a ''objective process''; anybody in the organization should come to the same conclusion.

A Stage-Gate Process is complementary to project evaluation methods that, for example, analyze resource availability, project-related risks or costs and benefits of the project. The method is also frequently used in combination with other project management tools, like Gantt Charts or Concurrent Engineering theory <ref name="Thamhain1996">Thamhain, H. (1996). Applying stage-gate processes in concurrent engineering. Wescon/96. pp 2-7</ref>
The process can be used in most project-related contexts, but gained a lot attention in the field of new product development as a ''strategic pacing method'' <ref name="Sharma1999">Sharma, A. (1999). Central Dilemmas In Managing Innovation in Large Firms. ''California Management Review''. Vol 41. No 3. pp 146-164</ref>

==Basic Elements of the Stage-Gate Process==
[[File:CostUncertainty Tradeoff.png|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Overview of the standardized selection of stages <ref name="Cooper2008"/>.|'''Figure 1''': The Cost-Uncertainty Reduction trade-off visualized]]
The basic idea of a Stage-Gate Process is that the whole project is divided in a predetermined set of ''stages''. These stages consist of groups of related activities (often conducted in parallel) that end in so-called ''gates''. Gates are characterized as containing a set of deliverables or inputs, a set of criteria, and an output <ref name="Cooper1990"> Cooper, R.G. (1990). Stage-Gate Systems: A New Tool for Managing New Products. ''Business Horizons''. pp 44-54 </ref>.

====Stages====

Stages often consist of activities that roughly follow the same trajectory, where first the data is collected, integrated and analysed<ref name="Cooper2008"> Cooper, R.G. (2008). Perspective: The Stage-Gate Idea-to-Launch Process — Update What’s New, and NexGen Systems, Product Development & Management Association, ''Journal of Product Innovation Management''. Vol. 25. pp 213-244</ref>.
Cooper (2008) mentions several key characteristics that need to be taken into account when identifying stages<ref> Cooper, R.G. (2008b). Perspective: The Stage-Gate Idea-to-Launch Process — Update What’s New, and NexGen Systems, Product Development & Management Association, ''Journal of Product Innovation Management''. Vol. 25. pp 215</ref>:

A. Each stage should strive to ''reduce endogenous and exogenous uncertainties and risks''. For the stage information requirements guide the team in their way-of-working.

B. ''Each stage is more costly'' than the preceding one. Combined with the element (1) above, this means that there exists a trade-off between uncertainties and risks on the one hand, and costs on the other hand (see figure 1)

C. Activities within stages are undertaken in ''parallel'' (as much as possible)

D. Activities are conducted by a ''diverse team'' of people from different backgrounds

E. Each stage is ''cross-functional''; so no departmental focuses are present

=====Formation of Stages=====

Several authors emphasize a standardized selection of stages that can provide the basis for implementing a Stage-Gate Process <ref name="Cooper2008"/><ref name="Cooper1990"/><ref name="Chao2014"> Chao et al. (2014). Incentives in a Stage-Gate Process. ''Production and Operations Management''. Vol 23. No 8. pp 1286-1298 </ref>. Cooper (1990) emphasized the following 5 stages, that roughly reflect the different phases of a (new product development) process <ref name="Cooper1990"/> (see figure 2):
[[File:Stage Gate Process Standard.png|thumb|upright=2.0|alt=Overview of the standardized selection of stages <ref name="Cooper2008"/>.|'''Figure 2: '''Visualization of the Standardized Steps for using the Stage-Gate Process as defined by Cooper (2008)<ref name="Cooper2008"/>]]

1. '''''Preliminary Assessment''''':
here the project's technical and marketplace dynamics are explored. Often this stage is conducted internal to the firm at low cost and in a short term. For this assessment mostly qualitative analysis will be conducted to determine the gate outcome.

2. '''''Definition''''':
here the product characteristics are defined and the attractiveness needs to be verified. This is the last stage, before the company starts spending large amount of money developing the product. Compared to the first stage, this stage contains relatively more quantitative analysis activities.

3. '''''Development''''':
here the product takes shape, is tested, is marketed, and where operations are set-up. The initial financial assessment is extended to also include new information such as information about intellectual property (IP).

4. '''''Validation''''':
here the entire viability of the project is assessed, including the production process, user acceptance, and costs and benefits. Activities within this stage include in-house product tests, user/field trials, trail/pilot production, or a pre-test market.

5. '''''Commercialization''''':
here the marketing launch plan and operations plan are put to work. Other authors refer to this stage as the "launch" phase.

====Gates====

Where stages represent a longer period of time (weeks or months); gates represent meetings with a time-span of several hours. At each gate the following elements are relevant to keep in mind <ref name="Cooper1990"/>:

A. '''''Inputs/Deliverables''''': the deliverables that the project team and leader must bring to the gate

B. '''''Criteria''''': which are the items upon the input will be judged.

C. '''''Outputs''''': the decisions at the gate, and possible the approval of an action plan for the next stage

=====Gate Decisions=====
[[File:Stage Gate Visualisation.png|thumb|upright=2.0|alt=Overview of the Stage-Gate Process, with an emphasis on gate decisions.|'''Figure 3: '''Visualization of decisions at the gates of the Stage-Gate Process]]
Senior managers man the gates, and act as so-called ''gatekeepers''. This group is diverse in nature and each member has the power to approve the resources needed for continuation of the project <ref name="Cooper1990"/>.
During the ''gate meeting'' the gatekeepers meet to discuss the future of a project. The decision they make is objective; in other words, it is fully based on the ability of the team to meet the gate criteria. The following outputs can be generated during the gate meeting (see figure 3)<ref name="Cooper2008"/><ref name="Cooper1990"/> :

1. '''''Go''''': here the input created by the project team is sufficient. The next step is to proceed with the next stage.

2. '''''Kill''''': here the input created by the project team is insufficient or the results imply that the project will not be able to yield the desired benefits. The next step is to terminate the project, and review the process.

3. '''''Recycle''''': here the input created by the project team is insufficient, but the project still has potential to yield benefits. The next step is to restart the current stage, and update the inputs.

4. '''''Hold''''': here the input created by the project team is insufficient. The gatekeepers decide to delay their decision, and wait until inputs of parallel projects are provided at the next gate. Based on the input of these processes a decision will be made about stopping or recycling the project.

Cooper (2008) stresses that one of the main challenges faced by firm implementing the Stage-Gate Process, is making the gates work <ref name="Cooper2008"/>. He identifies two gate characteristics that could be optimized:

A. '''Gates with no teeth''': when gates are almost non-existent or lack clear decision-making, it may end up with project rarely being killed at gates. After defining the gate criteria, it is important that these criteria will be key in determining the future of the project. This may also be the result of (influential) gate keepers having so-called "pet projects", which they personally prefer over others.

B. '''Hollow decisions at gates''': here the gatekeepers decide to continue the project, but do not provide the resources necessary for completing the next stage. If managers do not decide and provide it will result in a full project pipeline where all products take forever to get to market. Hollow decisions also create difficulties in the field of resource management, where it becomes unknown if the current firm activities can be completed using the available resources (see [[ Resource Allocation in Project Management ]])

==Application areas for the Stage-Gate Process==

Cooper's original publication on the Stage-Gate Process focused itself on applications within the field of new product development <ref name="Cooper1986"> Cooper, R.G. (1986). Winning At New Products. Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201136651</ref> <ref name="Cooper1990"> Cooper, R.G. (1990). Stage-Gate Systems: A New Tool for Managing New Products. ''Business Horizons''. pp 44-54 </ref> <ref name="Cooper2008"> Cooper, R.G. (2008). Perspective: The Stage-Gate Idea-to-Launch Process — Update What’s New, and NexGen Systems, Product Development & Management Association, ''Journal of Product Innovation Management''. Vol. 25. pp 213-244</ref>.
He positioned his theory as a method to reduce cycle time and improve new product "hit rate". Over the years academics and professionals tuned the model to make it even more efficient in the field of new product development, and even used it to research other project-related environments. These developments are summarized by Cooper (2008) in his work about 'the Next-Generation Stage-Gate, he emphasizes the following elements <ref name="Cooper2008"/>:

A. '''Scaled to Suit Different Risk-Level Projects''': the Stage-Gate Process has become a scale-able process. Firms are able to adjust the method for different types of risk levels of projects; ranging from radical new product solutions to lower-risk line extensions.

B. '''Flexible Process''': after more information about the Stage-Gate Process became available, academics started to experiment with more flexible versions of the tool. The key is, however, that the process suggests best practices, but nothing is mandatory. Activities can be conducted simultaneously and stages can be skipped.

C. '''Adaptable Process''': not only can stages be skipped, they can also be adjusted to a firm's specific needs. An example is provided below in the 'Possible Theoretical Synergies' section, emphasizing the combination of [[Agile Project Management]] methods with the Stage-Gate Process.

====Application Areas other than New Product Development====

=====Application in Life-Cycle Management=====

Coulson (2010) stressed the use of the Stage-Gate Process in the field of ''life cycle management'' (see [[Life Cycle Model]])
<ref name="Coulson2010"> Coulson, K.E. (2010). Stage Gate Product Development Processes and Lifecycle Management. ''Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Project Management in a Changing Global Environment'' </ref>.
To fit the purpose, she added two stages providing after sales product maintenance and product obsolescence, and emphasized that a share of the project responsibilities in pharmaceutical and biomedical environments are positioned in after-sales activities. Coulson's work emphasizes the flexibility and adaptability of the overall formation of the Stage-Gate process and she stresses the possibilities of the method in the broader system of product innovation.

=====Application in Technology Development=====
Högman & Johannesson (2013) researched the effects of the use of the Stage-Gate Process in technology development <ref name="Hogman2013"> Högman, U. & Johannesson H. (2013). Applying Stage-Gate processes to technology development - Experience from six-hardware-oriented companies. ''Journal of Engineering and Technology Management''. Vol 30. pp 264-287</ref>.
An important finding of their research was the fact that the level of uncertainty in technology development greatly determined the need for flexibility in the Stage-Gate Process. One of limitations mentioned in literature it the fact that iterations are hard to incorporate in the Stage-Gate Process, and are related to high costs and planning problems <ref name="Hogman2013"/>. It is found that these negative effects are mitigated in technology development projects, compared to new product development projects. Högman & Johanneson (2013) prove that other development processes (like technology development processes) may be positively influenced by the use of Stage-Gate Processes.

=====Application in Manufacturing and Assembly Management=====

More recently Wuest et al. (2014) researched the effects of using the Stage-Gate Process in manufacturing and assembly systems <ref name="Wuest2012"> Wuest, T. Liu, Lu, S.C.Y. & Thoben K.D. (2012). Application of the stage gate model in production supporting quality management. ''Conference on Manufacturing Systems''. Vol 47. pp 32-37 </ref>
Their main finding is that, if adapted to the project scenario, the Stage-Gate Process could be beneficial for companies in manufacturing and assembly industries. The goal of their research was to identify flaws in manufacturing/assembly systems early on, to make sure that they do not amount to bigger problems. For these processes it is important to identify problems as fast as possible, to minimize the chance of costly redesign in the later phases. In other words, the cost-risk trade-off as can be identified in the new product development process is also present when considering manufacturing and assembly systems. The research by Wuest et al. (2014) emphasizes not only the possibilities of extending the Stage-Gate process, but also emphasize its relevance in contexts other than new product development projects.

== Theoretical Synergies ==

=====Synergies in Project Formalization=====

One of the main theoretical synergies that have been discovered by Sommer & Cooper (2016), who combined the [[ Agile Project Management]] with the Stage-Gate Process <ref name="Sommer2016"> Sommer A.F. & Cooper, R.G. (2016). From Experience: The Agile-Stage-Gate Hybrid Model: A Promising New Approach and a New Research Opportunity. ''Journal of Product Innovation Management''. Vol 33. No 5. pp 513-526 </ref>. For information technology (IT) companies both methods were already beneficial and the use the developed ''the Agile-Stage-Gate Hybrid Model'' should bring companies even more benefits, namely <ref name="Sommer2016"/>:

1. Faster and more adaptive response to changing customer needs

2. Better integration of the voice-of-the-customer

3. Better team communication

4. Improved development productivity

5. Shorter time-to-market

Another theoretical synergy was identified by Thamhain (1996), who combined the Stage-Gate Process with a ''Concurrent Engineering''. This method focuses on in-parallel execution of project activities and phases with the objective of minimizing overall project cycle time <ref name="Thamhain1996"> Thamhain, H. (1996). Applying Stage-Gate Processes in Concurrent Engineering. Wescon/96. pp 2-7 </ref>. This combination is already emphasized in Cooper's later work, where he stresses the relevance of cross-functional work and the use of parallel activities within stages.

It should also be considered that project planning methods are often compatible with Stage-Gate Processes. An example would be the [[Gantt Chart]] and related [[Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)]], which can map the different stages, their activities, and the gates (included as ''milestones''). Another relevant method that can provide the basis of a well-organized Stage-Gate Process is [[Scenario Planning Strategy]]. The company can use Scenario Planning methods to effectively deal with uncertainties at the gates. A result will be more flexible gate criteria, which actively incorporate the plausible scenarios that can be encountered during the lifespan of the project. Another relevant combination of the Scenario Planning and the Stage-Gate theory is in the field of portfolio management, where different portfolio decisions may lead to different project-combination scenarios (see figure 4, in [[Scenario Planning Strategy]]).

=====Synergies in Project Execution=====

A lot of companies have made their Stage-Gate Process lean. This is done by enriching their Stage-Gate Process with elements from [[Value Stream Analysis and Mapping for Project Management]] <ref name="Cooper2008"/>. When analyzing the value stream, the stages are kept in mind and the criteria at each gate are adapted to the insights gained. The goal is to optimize the Stage-Gate Process by assessing if all stages are relevant and efficient.

Cooper (2008) also emphasize several governance methods that be combined with the Stage-Gate Process to optimize decision making <ref name="Cooper2008"/>:

A. The use of ''scorecards'' (see [[Implementing KPIs]] section Scorecards and Dashboards) or success criteria to optimize go/kill/recycle/hold decisions. The method can be used to formalize the gate meetings and secure that gate keepers only keep relevant criteria in mind.

B. An extension to the point mentioned above is the inclusion of ''self-evaluation scorecards'' as an input to the gate. Here the scorecards of projects members are used as valuable input for the gate decision.

Developments in the field of project management have led to the introduction of alternative collaboration methods, like self-managed teams or virtual teams
<ref name="Wilson1992"> Wilson, T.B. (1992). Why Self-Managed Teams Work. ''International Industrial Engineering Conference''. Chicago. ISBN 0898061237</ref>
<ref name="Silverman1996"> Silverman, L. L., & Propst, A. L. (1996). Ensuring success: A model for self-managed teams. ''International Industrial Engineering Conference Proceedings'', pp 426–437 </ref>
<ref name="Brandt2011"> Brandt, V., England, W., & Ward, S. (2011). Virtual Teams. ''Research-Technology Management''. Vol 54. No 6. pp 62–63 </ref>.
These theories led to the development of ''self-managed gates'', where teams act as their own gatekeepers, and ''virtual gates'', where collaboration within the stages as well as gate meetings at the gate are conducted via digital media.

=====Synergies in Portfolio Management=====

Firms often use Stage-Gate Process methods in portfolio management (see [[Portfolio Management and complexity in organizations]]). Here the gates are replaced by ''portfolio reviews''. Portfolio reviews are conducted periodically and discuss the mix and balance of projects in the firm's portfolio. Connecting the Stage-Gate Process with the concept of portfolio management describes the link between the method and its implications for firm strategy. It is important that firms consider the (possible) influence of portfolio management practices in gate decisions when setting-up the gate criteria; simply because project team members cannot influence portfolio strategy in their activities.

Due to the lack of influence of the project team of reaching portfolio review criteria, communication is important <ref name="Cooper2008"/>. A lack of communication of senior management about the project's position in the portfolio may result in unexpected gate outputs. The unexpected stop of a project diminishes the relevance of using the Stage-Gate Process, and may result in a great decrease of motivation for project members to participate in future projects.

When considering the concept of portfolio reviews, the importance of the 'hold' gate output can be stressed. The output of portfolio reviews is dependent on the firm's available resources, the relative potential of each project and the desired distribution of project-types within the portfolio (see [[Project Portfolio Management Vs. Programme Management]] section 'Portfolio Management'). The hold decision is often used to temporary stop projects which characteristics do not fit the portfolio or might not be promising enough for the allocation of additional resources.

==Limitations of Using the Stage-Gate Process==

The Stage-Gate Process has been linked with several limitations, some of them have already been solved over time. Below you find a list of limitations/problems that are still present after applying Stage-Gate processes:

A. The effectiveness of the method highly depends on the behavior of senior management members that are appointed as gatekeepers. Cases exist where gatekeepers did not objectively decide on the gate output, or where personal prioritization was given for certain criteria <ref name="Cooper2008"/>.

B. The method requires a certain organizational mindset, where "homework" has to be done. In other words, companies have to do research when determining criteria at the gates and have to keep track of resource availability across the time-span of the projects. Using a Stage-Gate Process does not guarantee success, where its added value depends heavily on the right use of other tools <ref name="Cooper2008"/>.

C. The method assumes that cross-functional activities during each stage will reduce risks optimally. However, research emphasizes the relevance of risk management practices in the success of new product development (NPD) projects.
<ref name="Jacob2003"> Jacob, W.F., Kwak, Y.H. (2003). In search of innovative techniques to evaluate pharemaceutical R&D projects. ''Technovation 23''. pp 291-296</ref>
<ref name="Raz2002"> Raz, T., Shenhar, A.J., Dvir, D. (2002). Risk management, project success, and technological uncertainty. ''R&D Management''. Vol 32. pp 101-109</ref>
Research in the field of risk management suggest that risk reduction in project environments is more complex than is suggested in the Stage-Gate Process model.

D. Some projects require a more flexible framework. For designers it is often hard to follow a linear progress. For these projects the structural characteristics of the Stage-Gate Approach will not provide as much added value. Boland & Collopy (2004) stresses the relevance of designing outside of existing company systems in a free-space <ref name="Boland2004"> Boland, R.J. & Collopy, F. (2003). Managing as Designing. ''Stanford University Press''. ISBN 9780804746748 </ref>. Using the Stage-Gate Process may provide too much restrictions for team members in certain product development scenarios, where (senior) managers require the approach for decision-making.

E. Another limitation regarding flexibility is emphasized by Lenfle & Loch (2010) who emphasize that iterations of stages ("recycling" stages) is paired with high costs and planning issues <ref name="Lenfle2010"> Lenfle, S. & Loch, C. (2010). Lost roots: How project management came to emphasize control over flexibility and novelty. ''California Management Review''. Vol 53. No 1. pp 32-55</ref>.
For new product development processes requiring high flexibility and (therefore) a number of iterations, formalization of the process may emphasize the loss of time and money too much. This might result in a negative attitude of the gatekeepers towards recycling of gates.

F. The last element relating to the flexibility of using the Stage-Gate Process is emphasized by Sethi & Iqbal (2008) <ref name="Sethi2008"> Stage-Gate Controls, Learning Failure, and Adverse Effect on Novel New Products. ''Journal of Marketing''. Vol 72, pp 188-134 </ref>.
They emphasized a paradox which finds its origin in inflexible criteria defined at gates. They emphasize that this scenario leads to learning failure. This failure originates from not being able to change stage activities/gate criteria during the projects development. Learning failure may then influence market performance of novel new products, which (in turn) is not desirable for (senior) management.

G. Where the Stage-Gate Process allows many other tools to be incorporated within the framework, no clear guidelines are given on possible limitations or guidelines for implementation. Cooper (2008) already emphasized that firms occasionally use cost-cutting models in the wrong manner within Stage-Gate Processes <ref name="Cooper2008"/>. Ringen and Welo (2016) emphasize the fact that the Stage-Gate Process is not really a "process", but more of a governance concept <ref name="Ringen2016"> Ringen, G. & Welo, T. (2016). Towards a More Event-Driven NPD Process: First Experiences with Attempts of Implementation in the Front-End Phase. ''Engineering Design and Materials''. pp 1-10</ref>

== Key References ==

1. '''Virtual Issue Introduction: We've Come a Long Way Baby - Cooper, R.G. (2017)''' <ref name="Cooper2017"> Cooper, R.G. (2017). Virtual Issue Introduction: We've Come a Long Way Baby. ''Journal of Product Innovation Management''. Vol 34. No 3. pp 387-391</ref>

In this article Robert G. Cooper provides a more holistic approach to the new product development process for which he once developed the Stage-Gate Approach. Using 4 dimensions, Cooper explains how all major tools and methods in innovation management can be used to create an overarching framework called the ''Innovation Diamond''. Using the information presented above, it can be concluded that effective use of the Stage-Gate Process can be linked to all aspects of innovation management best practices. Cooper's most recent article therefore still emphasizes the relevance of the Stage-Gate Process, not only in project management, but also in the broader field of innovation management.

2. '''Stage-gate Project Management Processes as Professional Communication Practice: Connecting Technical and Marketing Communication in New Product Development - Berggreen, L. & Kampf, C. (2016)''' <ref name="Berggreen2016">Berggreen, L. & Kampf, C. (2016). Stage-gate Project Management Processes as Professional Communication Practice: Connecting Technical and Marketing Communication in New Product Development. ''IEEE International Professional Communication Conference (IPCC)'', Austin, TX, 2016, pp. 1-7</ref>

Berggreen and Kampf stress the relevance of the Stage-Gate Process in communication in new product development scenarios. The concept of the ''Marketing Circle'' is introduced, describing that technical communication is situated in a field connecting technical communication, marketing, and business process understanding. For engineering students, it is relevant to know how projects are managed and how the Stage-Gate Approach can be employed to connect the relevant fields (mentioned above). Students in the field of engineering will be confronted with project environments in the future, and should know how business processes are relevant for designing new products. Basic knowledge about the Stage-Gate Process is important to gain this knowledge. The article emphasizes the relevance of the Stage-Gate Process as one of the main methods to be mastered in teaching the basics on project management.

3. '''Towards a More Event-Driven NPD Process: First Experiences with Attempts of Implementation in the Front-End Phase - Ringen, G. & Welo, T. (2016)''' <ref name="Ringen2016"/>

The work by Ringen and Welo (2016) has been emphasized above in the 'limitations' section, and deserves extra attention regarding their distinction between event-driven new product development (NPD) guidance and Stage-Gate Process use in NPD projects. The authors emphasize the need for guidance in process prioritization based on knowledge gaps identified during the project. Their main reason for supporting this need is the fact that, although Stage-Gate Process has been used for 30 year, no real progress has been made on NPD project effectiveness (70 to 98% of the projects still fail). Several tools are introduced to reach their goal, including visual planning and management, stand-up meetings, and learning cycles. This article emphasizes that the Stage-Gate Process is only a planning and decision-making tool, the efficiency and effectiveness of the project still depend on complementary methods to be employed.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Project Management]][[Category:Tool‏‎]][[Category:Complexity]][[Category:Portfolio Management]]
[[Category:Timeline]]

Life Cycle Model

2019-05-17T09:26:21Z

Tkokotas:

Benefits Map

2019-05-17T09:23:43Z

Tkokotas: /* Design */

''Developed by Ragnheidur Ragnarsdottir''

A benefits map, a key feature in [[Wikipedia:benefits realisation management|benefits realisation management]], is a tool that helps with the identification of benefits and their criteria in relation to specific organisational aims or objectives.<ref name=" Breese " />

When there is a potential project or programme to be undertaken in an organisation, an important question is why it should be implemented. One part of determining if a project or programme is successful is to observe the delivered benefits from it, hence if it is found out that there is not a high probability of achieving any benefits or that the cost is significant higher than the value of the benefits, it is hard to justify its execution. By conducting a benefits map, the end document will result in a visual diagram that shows directly what the business case will contribute, from the very beginning of it, and if it is worth the effort.
Therefore, organisation that conducts the process of benefit mapping will not only have a realisation of the right benefits for a successful project or programme, those benefits will also provide a measurement of its value and the map can be used for monitoring through the entire lifecycle.<ref name="Sierra"/>
To get the best results when benefit mapping is carried out, it should be worked in a group and with input from key stakeholders.
The following article gives an insight into how to perform general benefits mapping and why it is beneficial for organisations that make use of it for their projects and programmes.

=Background=

Benefits realisation management (BRM) aims to ensure the implementation of value to organisations. In BRM the processes are divided in three main parts beginning with the identification of benefits, next the execution of benefits, and then the sustain of benefits. BRM has several support tools that can be used to assist in the realisation of benefits, and to be able to identify benefits resulting from a change the so-called benefits map can be of great help. Benefit Map is principally a structured methodology which success relies on brainstorming exercise in which a team composed by different knowledge and perspective members explore all possible benefits in a business case related to one or more organisational aims.<ref name="PMI"/>

=Benefits=

To be capable to carry out an effective benefits map, the ability to distinguish between the different types of benefits is needed. <ref name="C4CM"/>

; Tangible
: Tangible benefits are those that can be determined by directly measures and can be sorted in either cashable or non-cashable benefits.
* Cashable
::- The benefit is monetary and weights up against the costs of the business case. The cashable benefits can be of high importance but it often can take a long time to come into sight, that is months or even years can go by without bringing any profit.
* Non-cashable
::- The benefits usually links to better performance or accomplished new implementation of a product and comes relatively sooner into sight than the cashable benefits. An example of a non-cashable benefit is an increase in work efficiency in regards to time.

; Intangible
: Intangible benefits are usually non monetary and even though directly measures can not be used, the effects from the benefits can be measured indirectly. For example, job satisfaction can not be measured directly but indirect measures like surveys give an insight but it has to be kept in mind that these measures are not completely reliable because of possible unseen factors influencing the results.

; Economic
: Economic benefits affect the economical development of the organisation taking on the business case. An example is when there is an increase in profits of the business.

; Efficient
: Efficient benefits lead to performance improvements and an example is when an organisation optimises their production with the same resources as before.

; Effective
: Effective benefits lead to more successful ways to cater the customers demands, as for example with sustainability or cost reductions.

Conducting a benefits map without the right understanding of different benefits types could lead to unrealised major benefits with unforeseen consequences.

=Execution=

To be able to get the most out of the benefits map a need is to consider the process leading to its creation to get the best possible outcome. Included in the planning of this process is to identify the right people with the appropriate skills to take on this task. A brainstorming process is performed in a so called benefits workshop which includes the input of the key stakeholders of the relevant project. <ref name="C4CM"/>
==Responsibilities==

Important aspect of a successful benefits realisation is to assign the right people to certain responsibilities and ensure that they know what their accountability entails. In Table 1 the different roles are listed and explained.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|+ '''Cells left-aligned, table centered''' | Table 1: Benefits Realisation Roles <ref name="PMI2" />
|-
! scope="row" |Executive Sponsor
| style="padding-left: 2em;"| “Ensures the project or programme produces maximum value for the organisation¨.
|-
! scope="row" | Benefits or Business Owner
| style="padding-left: 2em;"| “Takes overall responsibility for monitoring and measuring benefits and ensuring they are achieved”.
|-
! scope="row" | Project Manager
| style="padding-left: 2em;"|“Leads the team responsible for achieving the project objectives”.
|-
! scope="row" | Programme Manager
| style="padding-left: 2em;"| “Maintains responsibility for the leadership, conduct and performance of programme”.
|-
! scope="row" | Portfolio Manager
| style="padding-left: 2em;"| “Establishes, balances, monitors, and controls portfolio components in order to achieve strategic business objectives”.

|}

==Stakeholders==

“A benefit is a measureable improvement from a change that is perceived as beneficial by a stakeholder” is the definition of a benefit as stated by the Centre for Change Management, and clearly illustrates why stakeholders are an important part of benefits management.
Stakeholders will be involved in all business cases, they will vary in importance but one has to be prepared for disagreements and conflicts of interests arising. It is important to have satisfied and correctly identified stakeholders when it comes to a successful project or programme, conducting stakeholder management the right way plays a big role here. Stakeholder considerations, should start from the beginning and vary through the project or programme lifecycle. Beginning with analysing identified stakeholders; their views, expectations and level of influence. The key stakeholders identified ought to either have the ability to make big impact or have high chance of being impacted by the project or programme, both in positive and negative ways. <ref name="Melton"/>

==Benefits Workshop==

Groups working on a shared goal with a clear defined objective, tend to be more creative and give a rise to more diverse ideas reaching the surface which results in more broaden thinking than would be the case otherwise. From this opposite views could arise that can be discussed and debated in a constructive manner. The improvement resulted from the outcome of a particular project affects key stakeholders and therefore it is important to include them in the benefits workshop brainstorm.

The benefits workshop should be conducted at the start of a project. The end goal with the implementation of the workshop is to have sufficient information to develop a benefits map identifying project aims, benefits, organisational changes, and enablers.

; Aims
: The primary purpose of the project is summarised by its aims (or objectives). For a starting point when it comes to identifying possible benefits, the two following questions should be considered: Why is this project being carried out? and What is the desired accomplishment by going through with the project?

; Benefits
: For the previous set aims to be reached, a need is to identify the right benefits that are required to be delivered.
: The benefits identified can be all from operational benefits to more strategic benefits.

; Enablers
: Identification of enablers (or outputs) can be done when the project aims and benefits have been established. Enablers are the capabilities, forces, and resources that help to achieve the success of the project.

; Changes
: Benefits do not occur without organisational changes, therefore to be aware of the aforementioned benefits it is necessary to identify those changes.

In the end of the benefits workshop the stakeholders have a clearer picture of the project with a single visual of the aims and the benefits to achieve them. The organisation responsible for the workshop gets a better overview of what its stakeholders consider to be valuable and their expectations to the project.<ref name="CICS"/>

==Design==

There is no one way to present the benefits map, when all the data has been obtained from the workshop it is first and foremost to keep in mind why this map is being done and put down the right information that helps to achieve that goal.
The first draft of the layout could be on a wall or board with post-it notes representing the enablers, changes, benefits, and aims. The final version of the benefits map should however be presented on a one page overview document.
As stated before there is no fixed way of how the map is visually presented but the general way is to begin, from right to the left, where the objectives and main benefits are most often known beforehand. The connection represented with arrows indicates relations between different aspects of the map, an example of a benefits map design, created by the author of the article, is shown in Figure 1. To create a benefitss map in a convenient way, applications such as Visio and Lucidcharts can be used.
<ref name="BPE"/>

[[File:Benefits Map.png|thumb|Figure 1: Example of a Benefits Map Layout, made by author (click Figure for full size)]]

As shown in Figure 1, the map is divided into columns; enablers, changes, benefits, and aims, where the largest column is usually benefits. However, it is important to keep in mind that there are various embodiments of benefits maps, and ultimately, those who carry out the making of the map that determine what should be included. Organisations that take advantage of benefits mapping, often tailor the tool after its needs and therefore various versions of maps exists, examples are benefits dependency networks and strategy maps.<ref name="C4CM"/>

Going back to the setup of the benefits map on Figure 1, beginning at the left hand side the enablers are identified, the enablers then lead to organisational changes and those changes help to make it possible for the benefits to emerge. Those benefits then contribute to the organisational aims. It is important to keep the map simple and not to over complicate it, the arrows represent the connections between different aspects and the columns keep order on the different parts of the map.

=Projects & Programmes=

According to the PMI definition, project is explained as “A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.” and program is described as “A group of related projects, sub-programmes, and programme activities managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits not available from managing them individually”. Even though many similarities are with projects and programmes, there are also significant differences between them. The duration of a project is in general shorter than a programme, it is carried out by a group of people that form a team with a common goal while programme contains different projects that together contribute to the achievement of the programme objective. When it comes to the difference in benefits, project outputs tend to be tangible while the outcomes of a programme are most often intangible.
<ref name="Westland"/>

==Project==

Projects come in all sizes and bring different values to the table. There can also be some benefits required to be resulted from initiating a particular project, and by performing benefits mapping it is made possible to work from right to left and look into what changes are required to achieve the desired benefits.<ref name="Maylor"/>

==Programme==

In regards to benefits management, having a clear overview over different projects is important when identifying the benefits of the programme that they are a part of. When having numerous aligned projects, it can get complicated to analyse the different outputs of them and therefore a consistent approach should be implemented between the projects to get the best results.<ref name="APM"/>

=Limitations=

How well the benefits map is executed is dependant on how qualified the members contributing to it are. It takes a skilled manager to provide, for example, the appropriate key stakeholders to participate in the benefits map workshop. The failure of having the right people participating can possibly lead to important benefits being overlooked, there is also a tendency to encounter an optimism bias when it comes to identifying benefits to justify the purpose of the project or program. The advantage of having a one page overview can easily turn into a disadvantage when the limited space available makes it necessary to rationalise important information that should be included.<ref name="C4CM"/><ref name="Melton1"/>

=Utilisation of the Benefits Map=

The benefits map for a particular business case has been made after a thorough benefits workshop was carried out, but what now? It has been made clear with the map what expected benefits will support the particular organisational goal presented and now is the time to make use of the gathered information. First the organisation needs to determine if the findings are such that it is worth continuing with the business case or whether it is unlikely to be successful and therefore to much of a risk to continue with.

If the findings are such that it is worth going through with the project or programme, the map should be looked at as a guidance on how to organise the time spent on different aspects of it and this makes it also easier to track the different actions needed to get to the end goal. Since the map is developed in the beginning of a business case, a need is to validate and update it through the entire process and be alert if there are new benefits to be identified when the project or programme progresses. Additionally, the map can be used to keep teams and those in concern on track, where priorities can be set with help of the map and stakeholders can be easily reminded what was agreed on in the very beginning when they may attempt to go beyond the plan.<ref name="C4CM"/>

=Annotated Bibliography=

'''Sierra, C. & Kunc, M. (2015) Benefits Realisation Management and its influence on project success and on the execution of business strategies, Volume 33, Issue 1.'''

The science article presents the results from a survey that explored the impact of Benefits Realisation Management (BRM) practices on project success rate. The survey was presented to practitioners in Brazil, the United Kingdom and United States. The result of the survey was used to investigate how effective it is to make use of BRM practices. Covering the theoretical background and research methodology, the outcome of the research presented the utilization of BRM practices in a positive light when it comes to project success.

'''The Centre for Change Management. (2011) Benefits Management Course Material.'''

Benefits Management Course Material gives an insight into the basics of Benefits Management and is meant for the preparation of a C4CM™ qualifications. It is meant as a starting point providing a basic framework for realisation management. The structure of the document is a five step process for Benefits Management in organisational change, describing how these steps are continuous through the lifecycle of a project or a programme. The main points described are the importance of regular reviews on the identified benefits and reassessment of achieving them in regards to new information.

'''Melton, T. (2008) Project Benefits Management: Linking projects to the business, Benefits Concept. Butterworth-Heinemann'''

This chapter goes in a comprehensive way over the benefits concept. Starting by its development, that is what activities are needed to develop the benefits and how these activities help with the understanding of project benefits. The highlighted activities are the mapping and measurements of benefits, stakeholder management and benefits realisation. After reading through this document, the reader will get a more complete overview of how benefits mapping will support the business case and how to make use of it.

=References=

<references>

<ref name="Breese">Breese, R. (2016) A unified view of benefits management/benefits realization
management to be integrated into PMI standards. Sheffield Hallam University.</ref>

<ref name="Sierra">Sierra, C. & Kunc, M. (2015) Benefits Realisation Management and its influence on project success and on the execution of business strategies, Volume 33, Issue 1.</ref>

<ref name="PMI">Project Management Institute. (2016). Benefits realization management framework. https://www.pmi.org/-/media/pmi/documents/public/pdf/learning/thought-leadership/benefits-realization-management-framework.pdf</ref>

<ref name="C4CM">The Centre for Change Management. (2011) Benefits Management Course Material. http://www.c4cm.co.uk/CourseMaterial/BensMgt/Benefits%20Management%20material.pdf</ref>

<ref name="PMI2">Project Management Institute. (2016) Focus on benefits during project execution. https://www.pmi.org/-/media/pmi/documents/public/pdf/learning/thought-leadership/pulse/benefits-focus-during-project-execution.pdf?sc_lang_temp=en-GB</ref>

<ref name="Melton">Melton, T. (2007) Project Management Toolkit: The Basics for Project Success, Second Edition. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd.</ref>

<ref name="CICS">Corporate Information and Computing Services. (2008). Benefits Realisation Management - Toolkit for Project Managers. http://www.cics.dept.shef.ac.uk/projects/Benefits_Management_Toolkit_for_PMs.pdf</ref>

<ref name="BPE">Becker Professional Education. (2017) Study Text: Business Analysis.</ref>

<ref name="Westland">Westland, J. (2013) The Difference Between a Project and a Program. https://www.projectmanager.com/blog/whats-the-difference-between-a-project-and-a-program</ref>

<ref name="Maylor">Maylor, H. (2010) Project Management, Fourth Edition. Pearson Education Limited./</ref>

<ref name="APM">Association for Project Management. (2017) Benefits Management. https://www.apm.org.uk/body-of-knowledge/delivery/scope-management/benefits-management/</ref>

<ref name="Melton1">Melton, T. (2008) Project Benefits Management: Linking projects to the business, ''Benefits Concept''. Butterworth-Heinemann</ref>

</references>

[[Category:Project Management]][[Category:People]][[Category:Users]][[Category:Program Management]]

2019-05-13T11:06:11Z

Tkokotas:

[[Stephen Covey's seven principles]]

Conceptbox

2019-05-13T10:45:47Z

Tkokotas: /* PEOPLE */

[[File:Conceptlogo.png|right|200px]]

Welcome to our Conceptbox - an online resource for project management tools, methods and theories.

The concepts are organized in the following table, inspired by the Project Canvas and in line with the four perspectives on projects:

PURPOSE, PEOPLE, COMPLEXITY and UNCERTAINTY.

This page is mostly oriented for project management information-seekers students or practitioners.

==PURPOSE==

'''<pre style="text-align:center; color: #c11e4a">Table 1.-Project aspect:PURPOSE</pre>'''

{|class="wikitable" style="border-left:solid 5px #c11e4a;border-right:solid 5px #c11e4a;border-bottom:solid 5px #c11e4a; width: 100%; height: 200px;"
!colspan="1" ; style="width: 20%; color: white; background-color: #c11e4a"|Enabler
!colspan="3" ; style="color: white; background-color: #c11e4a"|Project Canvas
|-
|rowspan="10" style=" background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"|'''PURPOSE'''
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Vision'''[[File:Purpose.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Scope'''[[File:Scope.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Success Criteria'''[[File:Success-Criteria.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Project Vision Statement]]
|[[Project Scope Control Management]]
|[[The Triple Constraint in Project Management]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[SMART goals - A Project Manager Tool]]
|[[Project Scope Management]]
|[[Limitations of the iron triangle]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Project Charter]]
|[[Work Breakdown Structure]]
|[[Beyond the Triple Constraint]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Value Proposition Canvas]]
|[[Requirements management]]
|[[Efficiency vs. Effectiveness]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Brainstorming technique]]
|[[Scope creep]]
|[[Project Management Success Factors]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Project governance framework]]
|[[Feasibility Study]]
|[[Managing Successful Programmes (MSP)]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Fuzzy Front End Management]]
|[[Fuzzy Front End Management]]
|[[Benefits Realization Management to Maximize Project Effectiveness]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Future workshop method]]
|[[Planning fallacy]]
|[[Key Performance Indicators (KPI)]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Business Case]]
|[[Goal hierarchy or Goal Breakdown Structure]]
|[[Implementing KPIs]]
|}

==PEOPLE==

'''<pre style="text-align:center; color: #474099">Table 2.-Project aspect:PEOPLE</pre>'''

{|class="wikitable" style="border-left:solid 5px #474099;border-right:solid 5px #474099;border-bottom:solid 5px #474099; width: 100%; height: 200px;"
!colspan="1" style="width: 20%; color: white; background-color: #474099"|Enabler
!colspan="3" style="color: white; background-color: #474099"|Project Canvas
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|rowspan="10" style=" background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"|'''PEOPLE'''
'''Basic'''
* [[Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication]]

'''Managing yourself'''
* [[Stephen Covey's seven principles of highly effective people]]
* [[David Allen's getting things done]]
'''Project Management and leadership competences'''
* [[The periodic table of project management competence elements]]
* [[Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model]]
* [[Leadership vs. Management]]
* [[Decision-making skills in project management]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Team'''[[File:Team.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Stakeholders'''[[File:Stakeholders.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Users'''[[File:Users.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Maslow hierarchy of needs]]
|[[Stakeholders]]
|[[Value Proposition Canvas]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Meetings Management]]
|[[Stakeholder Management]]
|Value to whom? (no content)
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Roles and responsibilities in project team]]
|[[Stakeholders from a dynamic and network perspective]]
|[[Benefits Map]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Team development]]
|[[Dealing with conflicts (sources, escalation, containment)]]
|Programmification of work (context) (no content)
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Organisational structures and Project organization]]
|[[Active listening]]
|[[Agile Methodology]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Belbin Team Roles]]
|[[Expectations Management]]
|[[Challenges in cross-cultural project management]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[MBTI]]
|[[Negotiating successfully]]
|[[Agile & Traditional PM cocktail]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Meeting strategies]]
|[[Dan Pink on Motivation - Autonomy, mastery and purpose]]
|
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[How to successfully go through the Five Stages of Team Development]]
|[[Project sponsor]]
|
|}

==COMPLEXITY==

'''<pre style="text-align:center; color: #16898b">Table 3.-Project aspect:COMPLEXITY</pre>'''

{|class="wikitable" style="border-left:solid 5px #16898b; border-right:solid 5px #16898b; border-bottom:solid 5px #16898b; width: 100%; height: 200px;"
!colspan="4" style="color: white; background-color: #16898b"|Project Canvas
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Results'''[[File:Milestones.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Timeline & Monitoring'''[[File:Milestones.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Actions'''[[File:Action.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Resources'''[[File:Resources.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Benefits realisation management]]
|[[Life Cycle Model]]
|Scheduling: Critical path, PERT, Gantt [http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/Scheduling_techniques_in_Project_Management]
|[[Cost vs. Price]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[The benefits of systems engineering]]
|[[Stage-Gate Process]]
|[[Types of dependencies]]
|[[Estimations: Basic Techniques]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Output, outcome, benefit]]
|[[Agile Methodology]]
|[[PERT/CPM]]
|[[Reference Class Forecasting (RCF)]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Benefits Map]]
|[[Fuzzy Front End Management]]
|[[Design thinking]]
|[[Optimism bias, strategic misinterpretation and reference class forecasting]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Creating a positive culture around failure in project management]]
|[[Project Governance]]
|[[Types of activities]]
|[[Partnering]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Negotiating successfully]]
|[[Gantt Chart in Project Management]]
|[[Construction scheduling using Location Based Scheduling instead of CPM]]
|[[Earned Value Analysis]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Milestone]]
|[[The procurement process]]
|[[Financial appraisal of projects]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Project Control]]
|[[Simon's four levels of control]]
|[[Types of resources]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[The best milestone plan is simple but with depths!]]
|[[Theory of Constraint]]
|[[Contracting and procurement]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Simon's four levels of control]]
|[[Critical chain project management (CCPM)]]
|[[Cost Estimation Techniques for Projects]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Project Control]]
|
|[[Integrated Cost and Schedule Control]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|}

==UNCERTAINTY==

'''<pre style="text-align:center; color: #1f8b43">Table 4.-Project aspect:UNCERTAINTY</pre>'''

{|class="wikitable" style="border-left:solid 5px #1f8b43; border-right:solid 5px #1f8b43; border-bottom:solid 5px #1f8b43; width: 100%; height: 200px;"
!colspan="1" style="width: 20%; color: white; background-color: #1f8b43"|Enabler
!colspan="3" style="color: white; background-color: #1f8b43"|Project Canvas
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|rowspan="11" style=" background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''UNCERTAINTY'''
* Epistemic vs. Aleatory uncertainty (no content)
* [[Lessons learned]]
* [[Simon's four levels of control]]
* [[Earned Value Analysis]]
* [[One Page Project Management]]
* [[Cognitive biases]]
* [[The A3 report]]
* [[Balanced scorecard]]
* [[Organisational resilience with mindfulness]]
* [[Scenario Planning Strategy]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"|'''Constraints'''[[File:Context.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Change'''[[File:Change.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Risk & Opportunities'''[[File:Risks.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Recovery Project Management]]
|Ideation tools ([[Brainstorming technique]], [[6 thinking hats]])
|[[Risk and Opportunities Management]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[The light at the end of the tunnel: managing challenges at Heathrow Express Project]]
|[[Change order]]
|[[Impact and Probability in Risk Assessment]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Construction modularization from a lean perspective]]
|[[Project Control]]
|[[Risk register]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Dealing with conflict in project management]]
|[[Contingency Reserves]]
|[[Delphi Method (expert for identification)]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Crises Management - 3Rs - Regret, Reason, Remedy]]
|[[Including Risk Management in Construction Projects]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Management of Project Change]]
|[[Risk tolerances]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Antifragility]]
|[[Risk Identification]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Coaching - Project Manager as Change Agent]]
|[[Decision Tree]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Management of Project Change]]
|[[Risk Quantification and Methods]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|
|[[SWOT analysis]]
|}

Conceptbox

2019-05-13T10:39:48Z

Tkokotas: /* PURPOSE */

[[File:Conceptlogo.png|right|200px]]

Welcome to our Conceptbox - an online resource for project management tools, methods and theories.

The concepts are organized in the following table, inspired by the Project Canvas and in line with the four perspectives on projects:

PURPOSE, PEOPLE, COMPLEXITY and UNCERTAINTY.

This page is mostly oriented for project management information-seekers students or practitioners.

==PURPOSE==

'''<pre style="text-align:center; color: #c11e4a">Table 1.-Project aspect:PURPOSE</pre>'''

{|class="wikitable" style="border-left:solid 5px #c11e4a;border-right:solid 5px #c11e4a;border-bottom:solid 5px #c11e4a; width: 100%; height: 200px;"
!colspan="1" ; style="width: 20%; color: white; background-color: #c11e4a"|Enabler
!colspan="3" ; style="color: white; background-color: #c11e4a"|Project Canvas
|-
|rowspan="10" style=" background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"|'''PURPOSE'''
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Vision'''[[File:Purpose.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Scope'''[[File:Scope.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Success Criteria'''[[File:Success-Criteria.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Project Vision Statement]]
|[[Project Scope Control Management]]
|[[The Triple Constraint in Project Management]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[SMART goals - A Project Manager Tool]]
|[[Project Scope Management]]
|[[Limitations of the iron triangle]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Project Charter]]
|[[Work Breakdown Structure]]
|[[Beyond the Triple Constraint]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Value Proposition Canvas]]
|[[Requirements management]]
|[[Efficiency vs. Effectiveness]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Brainstorming technique]]
|[[Scope creep]]
|[[Project Management Success Factors]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Project governance framework]]
|[[Feasibility Study]]
|[[Managing Successful Programmes (MSP)]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Fuzzy Front End Management]]
|[[Fuzzy Front End Management]]
|[[Benefits Realization Management to Maximize Project Effectiveness]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Future workshop method]]
|[[Planning fallacy]]
|[[Key Performance Indicators (KPI)]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Business Case]]
|[[Goal hierarchy or Goal Breakdown Structure]]
|[[Implementing KPIs]]
|}

==PEOPLE==

'''<pre style="text-align:center; color: #474099">Table 2.-Project aspect:PEOPLE</pre>'''

{|class="wikitable" style="border-left:solid 5px #474099;border-right:solid 5px #474099;border-bottom:solid 5px #474099; width: 100%; height: 200px;"
!colspan="1" style="width: 20%; color: white; background-color: #474099"|Enabler
!colspan="3" style="color: white; background-color: #474099"|Project Canvas
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|rowspan="10" style=" background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"|'''PEOPLE'''
'''Basic'''
* [[Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication]]

'''Managing yourself'''
* [[Stephen Covey's seven principles of highly effective people]]
* [[David Allen's getting things done]]
'''Project Management and leadership competences'''
* [[The periodic table of project management competence elements]]
* [[Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model]]
* [[Leadership vs. Management]]
* [[Decision-making skills in project management]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Team'''[[File:Team.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Stakeholders'''[[File:Stakeholders.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Users'''[[File:Users.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Maslow hierarchy of needs]]
|[[Stakeholders]]
|[[Value Proposition Canvas]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Meetings Management]]
|[[Stakeholder Management]]
|Value to whom? (no content)
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Roles and responsibilities in project team]]
|[[Stakeholders from a dynamic and network perspective]]
|[[Benefits Map]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Team development]]
|[[Dealing with conflicts (sources, escalation, containment)]]
|Programmification of work (context) (no content)
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Organisational structures and Project organization]]
|[[Active listening]]
|[[Agile Methodology]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Belbin Team Roles]]
|[[Expectations Management]]
|[[Challenges in cross-cultural project management]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[MBTI]]
|[[Negotiating successfully]]
|[[Agile & Traditional PM cocktail]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Meeting strategies]]
|[[Dan Pink on Motivation - Autonomy, mastery and purpose]]
|
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[How to successfully go through the Five Stages of Team Development]]
|[[Project sponsor]]
|
|}

==COMPLEXITY==

'''<pre style="text-align:center; color: #16898b">Table 3.-Project aspect:COMPLEXITY</pre>'''

{|class="wikitable" style="border-left:solid 5px #16898b; border-right:solid 5px #16898b; border-bottom:solid 5px #16898b; width: 100%; height: 200px;"
!colspan="4" style="color: white; background-color: #16898b"|Project Canvas
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Results'''[[File:Milestones.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Timeline & Monitoring'''[[File:Milestones.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Actions'''[[File:Action.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Resources'''[[File:Resources.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Benefits realisation management]]
|[[Life Cycle Model]]
|Scheduling: Critical path, PERT, Gantt [http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/Scheduling_techniques_in_Project_Management]
|[[Cost vs. Price]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[The benefits of systems engineering]]
|[[Stage-Gate Process]]
|[[Types of dependencies]]
|[[Estimations: Basic Techniques]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Output, outcome, benefit]]
|[[Agile Methodology]]
|[[PERT/CPM]]
|[[Reference Class Forecasting (RCF)]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Benefits Map]]
|[[Fuzzy Front End Management]]
|[[Design thinking]]
|[[Optimism bias, strategic misinterpretation and reference class forecasting]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Creating a positive culture around failure in project management]]
|[[Project Governance]]
|[[Types of activities]]
|[[Partnering]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Negotiating successfully]]
|[[Gantt Chart in Project Management]]
|[[Construction scheduling using Location Based Scheduling instead of CPM]]
|[[Earned Value Analysis]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Milestone]]
|[[The procurement process]]
|[[Financial appraisal of projects]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Project Control]]
|[[Simon's four levels of control]]
|[[Types of resources]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[The best milestone plan is simple but with depths!]]
|[[Theory of Constraint]]
|[[Contracting and procurement]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Simon's four levels of control]]
|[[Critical chain project management (CCPM)]]
|[[Cost Estimation Techniques for Projects]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Project Control]]
|
|[[Integrated Cost and Schedule Control]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|}

==UNCERTAINTY==

'''<pre style="text-align:center; color: #1f8b43">Table 4.-Project aspect:UNCERTAINTY</pre>'''

{|class="wikitable" style="border-left:solid 5px #1f8b43; border-right:solid 5px #1f8b43; border-bottom:solid 5px #1f8b43; width: 100%; height: 200px;"
!colspan="1" style="width: 20%; color: white; background-color: #1f8b43"|Enabler
!colspan="3" style="color: white; background-color: #1f8b43"|Project Canvas
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|rowspan="11" style=" background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''UNCERTAINTY'''
* Epistemic vs. Aleatory uncertainty (no content)
* [[Lessons learned]]
* [[Simon's four levels of control]]
* [[Earned Value Analysis]]
* [[One Page Project Management]]
* [[Cognitive biases]]
* [[The A3 report]]
* [[Balanced scorecard]]
* [[Organisational resilience with mindfulness]]
* [[Scenario Planning Strategy]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"|'''Constraints'''[[File:Context.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Change'''[[File:Change.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|style=" width: 26%; background-color:white; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" |'''Risk & Opportunities'''[[File:Risks.PNG|frameless|left|50px]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Recovery Project Management]]
|Ideation tools ([[Brainstorming technique]], [[6 thinking hats]])
|[[Risk and Opportunities Management]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[The light at the end of the tunnel: managing challenges at Heathrow Express Project]]
|[[Change order]]
|[[Impact and Probability in Risk Assessment]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Construction modularization from a lean perspective]]
|[[Project Control]]
|[[Risk register]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|[[Dealing with conflict in project management]]
|[[Contingency Reserves]]
|[[Delphi Method (expert for identification)]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Crises Management - 3Rs - Regret, Reason, Remedy]]
|[[Including Risk Management in Construction Projects]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Management of Project Change]]
|[[Risk tolerances]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Antifragility]]
|[[Risk Identification]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Coaching - Project Manager as Change Agent]]
|[[Decision Tree]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|[[Management of Project Change]]
|[[Risk Quantification and Methods]]
|-style=" background-color:white;"
|
|
|[[SWOT analysis]]
|}