DTU ProjectLab - User contributions [en-gb]

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-05T11:52:44Z

S182655: /* Communications Management Plan */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. Common applications of the theory within project management are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as the application of project communications including communications management plans to ensure effective communication with stakeholders.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana consisting of two papers. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Within the scope of project management, a study, conducted by PMI, shows that projects mostly fail because of poor communication. <ref name="seven">''Discenza, R. & Forman, J. B (2007). Seven causes of project failure: how to recognize them and how to initiate project recovery. Paper presented at PMI® Global Congress 2007—North America, Atlanta, GA. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.; 2013'' </ref> Having such a negative impact, it is obvious that appropiate communication in a project is important. Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the project communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. Understanding and using these guidelines can support better communication related to increasing efficiency within a team and a satisfactory outcome of a project. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop communication strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for effective communication with stakeholders. It forms part of the Project Communications Management Process and usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/> Some of the information in the communications management plan are:

* Stakeholder communication requirements;
* Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
* Person responsible for communicating the information;
* Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, email, press releases, or social media;
* Glossary of common terminology;
* Flow charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorisation, list of reports, meeting plans, etc. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

For a detailed description of the Project Communications Management Process and the Communications Management Plan see Chapter 10 in ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), Sixth Edition. <ref name="Pmbokguide" /> ''

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-05T09:25:53Z

S182655: /* Communications Management Plan */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. Common applications of the theory within project management are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as the application of project communications including communications management plans to ensure effective communication with stakeholders.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana consisting of two papers. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Within the scope of project management, a study, conducted by PMI, shows that projects mostly fail because of poor communication. <ref name="seven">''Discenza, R. & Forman, J. B (2007). Seven causes of project failure: how to recognize them and how to initiate project recovery. Paper presented at PMI® Global Congress 2007—North America, Atlanta, GA. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.; 2013'' </ref> Having such a negative impact, it is obvious that appropiate communication in a project is important. Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the project communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. Understanding and using these guidelines can support better communication related to increasing efficiency within a team and a satisfactory outcome of a project. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop communication strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for effective communication with stakeholders. It forms part of the Project Communications Management Process and usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/> Some of the information in the communications management plan are:

* Stakeholder communication requirements;
* Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
* Person responsible for communicating the information;
* Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, email, press releases, or social media;
* Glossary of common terminology;
* Flow charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorisation, list of reports, meeting plans, etc. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

For a detailed description of the Project Communication Management Process and the Communications Management Plan see Chapter 10 in ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), Sixth Edition. <ref name="Pmbokguide" /> ''

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-05T09:24:45Z

S182655: /* Communications Management Plan */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. Common applications of the theory within project management are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as the application of project communications including communications management plans to ensure effective communication with stakeholders.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana consisting of two papers. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Within the scope of project management, a study, conducted by PMI, shows that projects mostly fail because of poor communication. <ref name="seven">''Discenza, R. & Forman, J. B (2007). Seven causes of project failure: how to recognize them and how to initiate project recovery. Paper presented at PMI® Global Congress 2007—North America, Atlanta, GA. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.; 2013'' </ref> Having such a negative impact, it is obvious that appropiate communication in a project is important. Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the project communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. Understanding and using these guidelines can support better communication related to increasing efficiency within a team and a satisfactory outcome of a project. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop communication strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for effective communication with stakeholders. It forms part of the Project Communications Management Process and usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/> Some of the information in the communications management plan are:

* Stakeholder communication requirements;
* Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
* Person responsible for communicating the information;
* Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, email, press releases, or social media;
* Glossary of common terminology;
* Flow charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorisation, list of reports, meeting plans, etc. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

For a detailed description of the Project Communication Management Process and the Communications Management Plan see Chapter 10 in ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), Sixth Edition. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/> ''

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-05T09:16:31Z

S182655: /* Abstract */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. Common applications of the theory within project management are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as the application of project communications including communications management plans to ensure effective communication with stakeholders.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana consisting of two papers. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Within the scope of project management, a study, conducted by PMI, shows that projects mostly fail because of poor communication. <ref name="seven">''Discenza, R. & Forman, J. B (2007). Seven causes of project failure: how to recognize them and how to initiate project recovery. Paper presented at PMI® Global Congress 2007—North America, Atlanta, GA. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.; 2013'' </ref> Having such a negative impact, it is obvious that appropiate communication in a project is important. Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the project communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. Understanding and using these guidelines can support better communication related to increasing efficiency within a team and a satisfactory outcome of a project. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop communication strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/> Some of the information in the communications management plan are:

* Stakeholder communication requirements;
* Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
* Person responsible for communicating the information;
* Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, email, press releases, or social media;
* Glossary of common terminology;
* Flow charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorisation, list of reports, meeting plans, etc. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

For a detailed description of the Communications Management Plan see Chapter 10 in ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), Sixth Edition.''

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:59:19Z

S182655: /* Communications Management Plan */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana consisting of two papers. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Within the scope of project management, a study, conducted by PMI, shows that projects mostly fail because of poor communication. <ref name="seven">''Discenza, R. & Forman, J. B (2007). Seven causes of project failure: how to recognize them and how to initiate project recovery. Paper presented at PMI® Global Congress 2007—North America, Atlanta, GA. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.; 2013'' </ref> Having such a negative impact, it is obvious that appropiate communication in a project is important. Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the project communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. Understanding and using these guidelines can support better communication related to increasing efficiency within a team and a satisfactory outcome of a project. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop communication strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/> Some of the information in the communications management plan are:

* Stakeholder communication requirements;
* Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
* Person responsible for communicating the information;
* Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, email, press releases, or social media;
* Glossary of common terminology;
* Flow charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorisation, list of reports, meeting plans, etc. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

For a detailed description of the Communications Management Plan see Chapter 10 in ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), Sixth Edition.''

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:58:58Z

S182655: /* Communications Management Plan */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana consisting of two papers. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Within the scope of project management, a study, conducted by PMI, shows that projects mostly fail because of poor communication. <ref name="seven">''Discenza, R. & Forman, J. B (2007). Seven causes of project failure: how to recognize them and how to initiate project recovery. Paper presented at PMI® Global Congress 2007—North America, Atlanta, GA. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.; 2013'' </ref> Having such a negative impact, it is obvious that appropiate communication in a project is important. Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the project communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. Understanding and using these guidelines can support better communication related to increasing efficiency within a team and a satisfactory outcome of a project. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop communication strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/> Some of the information in the communications management plan are:

* Stakeholder communication requirements;
* Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
* Person responsible for communicating the information
* Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, email, press releases, or social media;
* Glossary of common terminology
* Flow charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorisation, list of reports, meeting plans, etc. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

For a detailed description of the Communications Management Plan see Chapter 10 in ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), Sixth Edition.''

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:57:09Z

S182655: /* History */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana consisting of two papers. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Within the scope of project management, a study, conducted by PMI, shows that projects mostly fail because of poor communication. <ref name="seven">''Discenza, R. & Forman, J. B (2007). Seven causes of project failure: how to recognize them and how to initiate project recovery. Paper presented at PMI® Global Congress 2007—North America, Atlanta, GA. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.; 2013'' </ref> Having such a negative impact, it is obvious that appropiate communication in a project is important. Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the project communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. Understanding and using these guidelines can support better communication related to increasing efficiency within a team and a satisfactory outcome of a project. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/> Some of the information in the communications management plan are:

* Stakeholder communication requirements;
* Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
* Person responsible for communicating the information
* Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, email, press releases, or social media;
* Glossary of common terminology
* Flow charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorisation, list of reports, meeting plans, etc. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

For a detailed description of the Communications Management Plan see Chapter 10 in ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), Sixth Edition.''

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:55:06Z

S182655: /* Application in Project Management */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Within the scope of project management, a study, conducted by PMI, shows that projects mostly fail because of poor communication. <ref name="seven">''Discenza, R. & Forman, J. B (2007). Seven causes of project failure: how to recognize them and how to initiate project recovery. Paper presented at PMI® Global Congress 2007—North America, Atlanta, GA. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.; 2013'' </ref> Having such a negative impact, it is obvious that appropiate communication in a project is important. Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the project communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. Understanding and using these guidelines can support better communication related to increasing efficiency within a team and a satisfactory outcome of a project. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/> Some of the information in the communications management plan are:

* Stakeholder communication requirements;
* Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
* Person responsible for communicating the information
* Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, email, press releases, or social media;
* Glossary of common terminology
* Flow charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorisation, list of reports, meeting plans, etc. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

For a detailed description of the Communications Management Plan see Chapter 10 in ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), Sixth Edition.''

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:38:58Z

S182655: /* Communications Management Plan */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. Understanding and using these guidelines can support better communication related to increasing efficiency within a team and a satisfactory outcome of a project. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/> Some of the information in the communications management plan are:

* Stakeholder communication requirements;
* Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
* Person responsible for communicating the information
* Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, email, press releases, or social media;
* Glossary of common terminology
* Flow charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorisation, list of reports, meeting plans, etc. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

For a detailed description of the Communications Management Plan see Chapter 10 in ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), Sixth Edition.''

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:38:39Z

S182655: /* Communications Management Plan */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. Understanding and using these guidelines can support better communication related to increasing efficiency within a team and a satisfactory outcome of a project. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/> Some of the information in the communications management plan are:

* Stakeholder communication requirements;
* Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;
* Person responsible for communicating the information
* Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, email, press releases, or social media;
* Glossary of common terminology
* Flow charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorisation, list of reports, meeting plans, etc. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

For a detailed description of the Communications Management Plan see Chapter 10 in ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge PMBOK Guide, Sixth Edition.''

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:27:06Z

S182655: /* Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. Understanding and using these guidelines can support better communication related to increasing efficiency within a team and a satisfactory outcome of a project. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:19:41Z

S182655: /* Annotated bibliography */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of developing a communication strategy that is used to create a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:16:46Z

S182655: /* Annotated bibliography */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of the three steps in order to develop and implement a communication strategy that can be used to prepare a Communications Management Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:15:52Z

S182655: /* Annotated bibliography */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter ''Project Communication Management'' describes the process of the three steps in order to develop and implement a communication strategy which is summarised as a Communication Plan. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:14:19Z

S182655: /* Application in Project Management */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:13:38Z

S182655: /* Annotated bibliography */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''
The authors of this book give an overall and in-depth description of various communication models within different research areas as well as the components of communication based on the contemporary use and understanding of communication.

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T22:09:10Z

S182655: /* Annotated bibliography */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented including the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and breakdowns of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

*'''Handbooks of Communication Science - Theory and Models of Communication. Cobley, P, Schulz, et al. De Gruyter M, 2013'''

*'''Leadership Communication. Barrett, D. J. McGraw-Hill Education, Fourth Edition, 2013'''
This book provides guidelines for leaders in order to gain appropriate communication skills and to perform communication with high productivity and effectiveness. It also gives some insights into the theoretical aspects of leadership communication.

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T21:54:00Z

S182655: /* Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semantic noise takes place when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person's understanding he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating with a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. A project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder e-mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented iincluding the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T21:48:05Z

S182655: /* Annotated bibliography */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semanitc noise takes places when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating to a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. Project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. a an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope, and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways transmitted (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented iincluding the 5Cs of written communications and several communication methods to share information.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T21:43:23Z

S182655: /* Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semanitc noise takes places when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating to a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. Project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. a an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope, and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways transmitted (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 
 

=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T21:43:06Z

S182655: /* Application in Project Management */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
=== Communication Guidelines based on Shannon & Weaver's key concepts ===

The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular. <ref name = "human" />
Semanitc noise takes places when there is a misunderstanding of the message because both the sender and receiver have a different frame of reference. Therefore, a receiver does not assign the same meaning to a message which is intended to transmit by the sender or simply does not understand the message because of difficult vocabulary and unknown terminology. <ref name="handbook">''Narula, U. Handbook of Communication: Models, Perspectives, Strategies. Atlantic Publisher & Distributors. 2006'' </ref>
In respect of this assumption, semantic noise can be reduced when the project manager uses vocabulary and terminologies which are adapted to the person he or she is communicating to.

W. Dow and D. Taylor <ref name="bible">''Dow, W., PMP, Taylor D. Project Management Communication Bible. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2008'' </ref> state that general noise or interference can be a ''personal filter'' which influences the understanding and interpretation of a message. This personal communication filter is based on the personality, the background and the experiences of each individual. This can be essential when a project manager is communicating to a person from a different country or needs to handle different cultures such as Eastern and Western cultures. Project manager should be aware of potential personal bias and cultural differences leading to misunderstanding. This awareness should be used in order to individually adapt a message and increase the possibility of understanding the main idea. <ref name="bible"/>
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

In order to draw attention to e.g. a an important meeting date, a project manager can remind the project team by sending reminder mails.
 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
Overcoming the problem of a message which is transmitted completely unexpected, the redundancy of this entropic message can be increased. <ref name="thesis">''Lowes, A.-K, Christensen, J. M. M., Jørgensen, T. Starting up a business - a communicative framework for defining and reaching a target audience. The Aarhus School of Business; 2004'' </ref>

Therefore, a project manager should e.g give some keywords before introducing the main message. This person should be then able to frame the topic and scope, and understand the main idea of the message. Another approach could be the use of different communication ways transmitted (face-to-face, presentation, phone call,.. ) tailored to the communication preferences of each project team member and stakeholder.
 
 
 
=== Communications Management Plan ===
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T20:21:11Z

S182655: /* Abstract */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research. A common application of the theory are general communication guidelines for project manager as well as project stakeholder communication and communications management plans.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T20:06:25Z

S182655: /* Limitations */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time which influences a different understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T20:04:04Z

S182655: /* History */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1964, “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref>, consisting of two papers. In the first part, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T20:00:38Z

S182655: /* Abstract */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project are mandatory for a successful project. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T19:35:29Z

S182655: /* The Levels of Communication Problems */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T19:35:12Z

S182655: /* The Levels of Communication Problems */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T19:35:03Z

S182655: /* The Levels of Communication Problems */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>
 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-03-04T19:34:43Z

S182655: /* Example of Oral Communication */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication [Created by author] '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-02-28T19:20:55Z

S182655: /* Abstract */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental understanding of the project, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication. Created by author '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-02-28T19:08:04Z

S182655: /* Abstract */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the intended or involuntary exchange of information. <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref> Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication. Created by author '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-02-28T11:39:26Z

S182655: /* Application in Project Management */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the exchange of information, intended or involuntary <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref>. Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication. Created by author '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' Ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-02-28T11:39:02Z

S182655: /* Basic Elements */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the exchange of information, intended or involuntary <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref>. Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication. Created by author '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-02-28T11:38:28Z

S182655: /* Limitations */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the exchange of information, intended or involuntary <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref>. Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''Information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication. Created by author '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
<div style="text-align: center;">''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)</div>
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-02-27T19:30:41Z

S182655:

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the exchange of information, intended or involuntary <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref>. Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental, portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particularly important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primarily designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''Information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication. Created by author '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through the air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speaks to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to send is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainty. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of a source of given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also excluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandler critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasise the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Fourth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspects that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-Merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summarises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Fourth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

File:General Communication System.png

2019-02-27T19:23:56Z

S182655: S182655 uploaded a new version of "File:General Communication System.png"

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-02-26T10:16:54Z

S182655: /* Limitations */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

Remark: The file uploading doesn't work (Figure 1 should be changed, Figure 2 should be shown) I got the following warning:
Upload warning: The file you uploaded seems to be empty. This might be due to a typo in the filename. Please check whether you really want to upload this file.
== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the exchange of information, intended or involuntary <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref>. Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental , portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particulary important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primary designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''Information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|400px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication. Created by author '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speak to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to sent is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainity. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of source of a given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as a one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also exluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning ; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)
 
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandles critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasis the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Forth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspect that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to a very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve a successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summerises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate the communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Forth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-02-26T10:16:38Z

S182655: /* Limitations */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

Remark: The file uploading doesn't work (Figure 1 should be changed, Figure 2 should be shown) I got the following warning:
Upload warning: The file you uploaded seems to be empty. This might be due to a typo in the filename. Please check whether you really want to upload this file.
== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the exchange of information, intended or involuntary <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref>. Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental , portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particulary important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primary designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''Information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|400px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication. Created by author '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speak to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to sent is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainity. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of source of a given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as a one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also exluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning ; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)
 
'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandles critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasis the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Forth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspect that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to a very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve a successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summerises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate the communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Forth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-02-26T10:16:27Z

S182655: /* Limitations */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

Remark: The file uploading doesn't work (Figure 1 should be changed, Figure 2 should be shown) I got the following warning:
Upload warning: The file you uploaded seems to be empty. This might be due to a typo in the filename. Please check whether you really want to upload this file.
== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the exchange of information, intended or involuntary <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref>. Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental , portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particulary important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primary designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''Information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|400px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication. Created by author '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speak to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to sent is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainity. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of source of a given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as a one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also exluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following: 
''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning ; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)

'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandles critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasis the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Forth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspect that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to a very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve a successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summerises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate the communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Forth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Shannon & Weaver Model for Communication

2019-02-26T07:50:09Z

S182655: /* Application in Project Management */

Developed by ''Andrea Könnecke'' 

Remark: The file uploading doesn't work (Figure 1 should be changed, Figure 2 should be shown) I got the following warning:
Upload warning: The file you uploaded seems to be empty. This might be due to a typo in the filename. Please check whether you really want to upload this file.
== Abstract ==

Communication is an essential factor in project management and is defined as the exchange of information, intended or involuntary <ref name="Pmbokguide">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Sixth Edition; 2017'' </ref>. Successful communication is affected when what is implied is perceived as intended. Communication within project management is seen as a foundation function that integrates the areas of scope, schedule and resources <ref name="Zulch"> ''Zulch, B. Communication: The Foundation of Project Management. Procedia Technology. 2014 Oct; 16: 1000-10009'' </ref>
Ineffective communication can therefore lead to misunderstandings and to a failure of a project. For that reason, an effective communication system and a fundamental , portfolio or programme manager to the communication maintenance during the life cycle of a project or programme are mandatory for a successful project or programme. <ref name="Pmbokguide" />
Thus, a solid understanding of communication and developed skills to communicate are necessary for project, programme or portfolio manager to ensure the potential for cooperation and an effective communication within the project team and with all project stakeholders.

The following article looks into the basic model of communication and its components which is known as the ''Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication''. This model is often referred as the ''Mother of all Models'' as it was particulary important for the development of communication studies. <ref name="Evolution">''Stewart,R. Malayan, R. and Roberts, R. The evolution and use of communication theories. EUROCON'2001. International Conference on Trends in Communications. Technical Program, Proceedings (Cat. No.01EX439), Bratislava, Slovakia, 2001, pp. 251-254 vol.1. doi: 10.1109/EURCON.2001.937806'' </ref> However, it was primary designed to improve technical communication of radio and telephone. <ref name="Shannon1948"> ''Shannon, C.E. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 27; 1948: (July and October): 379–423, 623–656'' </ref> Later, the model was used in order to understand and develop effective communication as it offers insights in the way in which communication is designed. Shannon and Weaver suggested three levels of problems and introduced some key concepts which are used in further communication research.

== Model Description ==

=== History ===

During the Second World War, Claude E. Shannon, a research mathematician and electrical engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a mathematical theory of communication providing the first systematic framework to improve the design of telephone systems. He developed a model showing the general communication system which is based on findings of earlier work from H. Nyquist and R. V. L Hartley in the area of information theory. Shannon’s aim was to identify the quickest and most efficient way (channel) to get a message from one point to another. This was motivated by the goal to discover how communication messages could be converted into electronic signals most efficiently, and how those signals could be transmitted with a minimum of error. The theory gives an approach of how to maximise the amount of information in a given channel and how to measure the channel’s capacity. He presented his theory in an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” published in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journey in 1948. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> After this article was published, Warren Weaver recognised that Shannon’s information theory and model has a wider potential for the general communication theory. In 1949, the book “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” was published in the Bell System Technical Journal as a reprint of Shannon’s article with an additional introduction and consideration relating Shannon’s theory to human communication since the original work was designed under a technical aspect and was formulated as a binary mathematical model. <ref name="Shannon1948"/> <ref name="Shannon1949"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1949'' </ref>
IAs the number of research activities in communication theory grew, C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver present their work in “The Mathematical Theory of Communication” published by the University of Illinois Press, Urbana, in 1964. <ref name="Shannon1964"> ''Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL, US: University of Illinois Press. 1964'' </ref> This edition consists of two papers where in the first paper, W. Weaver gives an introduction and explanation of Shannon’s theory, accessible for non-scientist and more related to the human communication. Part two is a reprint of the article published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1948 with some minor corrections. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
Eventually, it became the basic model for communication, known as the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication. In John Fiske’s words, this model is ' ''widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which communication Studies has grown. It is a clear example of the process school, seeing communication as the transmission of messages.'' ' <ref name="Fiske"> ''Fiske, J. Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Second Edition. 1990'' </ref>

=== Basic Elements ===

The Shannon and Weaver Model represents the communication process in a linear form which involves a one-way communication from a sender transmitting a message to a receiver. The basic model contains six basic elements which form the general communication system according to Shannon and Weaver. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

[[File:General Communication System.png|thumb|centre|700px|Figure 1: General Communication System. Inspired by ''Schematic diagram of general communication system. ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/>.]]

A desired message or a sequence of messages out of a set of possible messages is selected by the ''Information Source'', also called Sender. In order to send to message over the ''communication channel'', a ''transmitter'' changes the messages into a signal. The ''receiver'' can be seen as an inverse transmitter which changes the signal back to a message and hands this message over to the destination. The noise, created by a ''noise source'' refers to any distortions or errors in the communication process which can occur during the transmission or at one of the terminals. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Example of Oral Communication ===

[[File:Oral Speech.png|thumb|right|400px|Figure 2: Illustrated Example of Oral Communication. Created by author '']]

W. Weaver gives a simple example of human communication in order to understand the elements of the Communication Model. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

In this particular case of oral communication, Person A wants to share an idea with Person B. The brain (information source) of person A selects the desired idea (message) to transfer to person B. The voice mechanism (transmitter) of Person A transforms the thought into sound which is transferred through air (channel). When the oral message arrives in the ear and its associated nerves of Person B, the sound can be reconstructed into the idea, so Person B received the idea. As Person A speak to Person B in a loud surrounding (noise source), it might be that Person B can not fully receive the sound. Or, Person B got distracted by the loud background and thus, does not listen to the incoming sound of Person A. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== The Levels of Communication Problems ===

Shannon and Weaver identified and suggested three levels of problems in the area of communication. These levels show no clear boundaries, but rather an overlapping and interrelation with each other. <ref name="Shannon1964"/> 
'''Level A''' 
The ''technical problem'': How accurately can the symbol of communication be transmitted?

'''Level B''' 
The ''semantic problem'': How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?

'''Level C''' 
The ''effectiveness problem'': How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?

The technical problem in Level A represents the main question for that the model was originally developed for. <ref name="Fiske"/>
It focusses on the correct transference of sets of symbols, signals or pattern from the sender to the receiver. The accuracy depends on the technical efficacy of the medium or the channel. 
Semantic problems compare the coverage of the intended meaning transmitted from the sender with the meaning interpreted by the receiver.
The effectiveness problem deals with the extent to which the meaning expressed by the sender and transmitted affect the conduct of the receiver in the desired way. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Staples in Communication Research ==
Besides the suggested levels of problems in communication, the theory represents basic concepts which are used as staples in further communication research. <ref name="Fiske"/>

=== Information ===
Within the scope of this particular communication theory, the word information is not related with meaning as it focuses on what ''is'' said rather than what ''could'' be said. It is defined as “a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message” where the concept of information is used to the situation as a whole and not to an individual message. The unit information states the extent of freedom of choosing a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Entropy ===
The concept of entropy H describes the measure of uncertainty in a system. When the probability in choosing between two messages to sent is completely free and unbiased, the entropy is large as the receiver can not predict the incoming message because of the uncertainity. In contrast, the entropy is very small when there is no choice of different messages for the transfer. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Redundancy ===
A message is highly redundant when it contains a lot of items that add no new value. These parts of the messages are unnecessary, meaning that the sense of this message would be still complete even if this fraction of message would be missing. A general understanding of redundancy in communication is important because it helps combat noise in a communicating system e.g. in repeating a message. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

=== Channel Capacity ===
The capacity C of a channel is described as the ability of the system to transmit what is produced out of source of a given information. <ref name="Shannon1964"/>

== Strengths ==
Shannon and Weaver’s model for communication contains six elements connected with arrows indication the direction or influence. Advantages of this model are:
::* broadly understandable
::* simplicity
::* linearity
::* quantifiability <ref name="Fiske"/> <ref name="Chandler"> ''Chandler, D. The Transmission Model of Communication. 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.html [Access: 22.02.19]'' </ref>

== Limitations ==
There are some limitations of the Shannon-Weaver model highlighted by D. Chandler. <ref name="Chandler"/> Some of the most relevant issues are related to the simplicity of the model as it enhances misinterpretation of the nature of human communication.

'''1. Linearity and lack of feedback''' 
The transmission model consists of two separate elements, namely “sender” and “receiver”. In this system of communication, there is no simultaneous “sending” and “receiving” possible. Furthermore, the sender marks an active role who determines the meaning of the message while the sender is passive. This critique point also highlights a missing feedback loop, as the model is defined as a one-way communication.

'''2. Content and meaning''' 
The model originally describes a mathematical theory focusing on the pure transmission of information rather than their meaning. In this model, the content of a subject is framed as “the message” excluding feelings or similar influences. The process of decoding is treated as the inverse function of encoding, also exluding the receiver’s frames of interpretations. Shannon showed awareness of this limitation in his introduction stated as the following:
''“The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning ; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem." ''<ref name="Shannon1948"/> (Shannon, 1948)

'''3. Influence of Context''' 
Related to the pure transmission of information, D. Chandles critises that the model does not include the importance of context. Meaning and context such as situational, social, institutional, political, cultural and historical context are directly related and influences the interpretation of a message.

'''4. Influence of Relationships ''' 
The participants in the model are seen as isolated individuals without any influence of relationships (e.g. differences in power) and social roles.

'''5. Aspect of Time''' 
The model does not include the aspect of time regarding a dynamic change and the circumstances of time regarding the understanding of a message. It assumes that the elements sender and receiver remain separate in the same role over time.

'''6. Nature of the Medium''' 
The medium (channel) of the communication model is assumed as neutral, having no effect on both the form and the content of a message in the process of communication.

== Application in Project Management ==
Over the past years, the model of Shannon and Weaver has been highly influential in the area of communication and provided a basis for intense subsequent thinking in the way communications were analysed. This led to a further development of a wide range of other communication models. <ref name="Evolution"/>
 
In general, the purpose of communication models is to facilitate communication. <ref name="Pmbok2013">''Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Fifth Edition; 2013'' </ref> Using the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication simplifies the complexity of communication and emphasis the analysis. It aids to break down the communication process into steps which can be then diagnosed in order to investigated where barriers of communication are erected or where communication breakdowns take place. <ref name="today">''Eunson, B. Communicating in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia. Forth Edition; 2015'' </ref> Using the suggested three levels of problems can support the understanding of how the accuracy and efficiency of the communication process can be improved. <ref name="Fiske"/> Furthermore, the model can be used in a predictively way as it supports the dismantling of barriers or compensates the decoding loss be anticipating and carefully encoding the message in order to achieve successful communication. <ref name="today"/>
 
 
The development of the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication has highlighted three interrelated aspect that can serve as communication guidelines within any project and for any manager. <ref name="human">''Lin, N. The Study of Human Communication. Bobbs-merrill. 1973'' </ref>
 
'''1. The importance of noise reduction''' 
Supporting the assumption that a very accurate encoding is likely to lead to a very effective decoding by reducing the semantic noise in particular.
 

'''2. The relevance of redundancy''' 
The use of redundancy is useful in order to prevent information loss when transferring a message in a noisy channel. Redundancy is presented by three types
 
::a) ''Conventional redundancy:'' Style of presenting a message 
::b) ''Code redundancy:'' ways of how the content of a message can be represented 
::c) ''Content redundancy:'' Iteration/Repetition of the same message 

'''3. The necessity of balancing redundancy and entropy''' 
In order to achieve a successful decoding, messages need to point out background knowledge or need to be congruent with the individual’s capacity to deal with them.
 
 
 
It is essential for a project manager to understand the Shannon and Weaver Model for Communication to be familiar with the steps in a communication process. This understanding can assist to develop strategies in order to minimise the risk of a communication error or misunderstanding. A Communications Management Plan summerises the developed strategies and planned activities for an effective communication. It usually contains guidelines and templates to facilitate the communication throughout the project. This is particularly important when communication is necessary between different countries, cultures, and languages. <ref name="Pmbok2013"/>

== See also ==
[[Communication Management Strategy]] 
[[Effective Communication in Project Management]] 

== References ==
<references />

== Annotated bibliography ==

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, Sixth Edition, 2017'''
''Chapter 10'' - The chapter Project Communication Management describes the process of the three steps in order to develop a strategy and implement a communication strategy. Fundamental definitions and tools are also presented in this chapter.
 
*'''Communicating in the 21th century. John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Forth Edition, 2015'''
''Chapter 1'' - The chapter Communication today presents various communication models and their strengths and limitations. It also gives insights about successful communication and break downs of the communication process.
 
*'''Effective Communications for Project Management. Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group, 2008'''
In the book, the essential elements of effective communication are presented. It contains tools for the Active and Effective Listening (Chapter 4), the development of a Communications Management Plan (Chapter 5) as well as key steps for successful meetings (Chapter 7) and effective Presentations (Chapter 8).

Talk:Basic estimation techniques

2019-02-24T20:02:51Z

S182655: /* Answer 4 */

==Feedback on Abstract:==

{|
|'''Text clarity & language'''|| The text is okay, however there's a few grammatical errors (e.g. "a manager has to achieve specific object within...").
|-
|'''Description of the tool/theory/concept'''|| Good. Perhaps include a definition of what estimation is?
|-
|'''Article purpose explanation'''|| Very good.
|-
|'''Relevance to curriculum '''|| Relevant
|-
|'''References'''|| Ensure to include references wherever needed.
|}

==Feedback 1 | Reviewer name: ''Andrea Könnecke''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?
Add summary before table of contents or add abstract/introduction chapter after table of content
===Answer 1===
'' The Abstract (Summary) gives a really good overview about the topic itself, the structure of the article and the connection to PPPM. Probably the text can be read easier when you write the questions (in italic) blow each other (use )''
''NB: I think resources covers time and money as well, so you could write “a manager has to achieve specific objects within the project resources such as time and budget” or similar. ''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
'' The logical flow of the article is very good as each technique (for now: three out of six) is described shortly, including advantages and application examples. The techniques are framed with an abstract, a general guideline (but without further text) and critique (only keypoints, but sounds promising) which is really good.''
''The structure of each technique text could be improved by using subchapters (Advantages, Application), bolt words (as titles) or italic text.''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
'' Overall, the grammar and spelling is good. But sometimes sentences are hard to read as they are long and consist of many subordinate clause; sometimes it’s better to put a full stop than a comma. There is a spelling mistake in figure 1. ''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
'' Both figures implemented in the article helps to better understand the key points of the article. However, there is a typo in figure 1 and figure 2 has an invalid cite tag. Try to use more figures as you are describing several tools --> makes it easier to not get confused''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
'' As stated in the abstract, estimating is important for the planning/execution of a project. Knowing these techniques are therefore of practical and academic relevance. ’’

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
'' As stated above, the topic is relevant and therefore interesting to read. It includes all relevant techniques at a glance and mentions critique. But as the author describes six different techniques, there is a risk of a superficial writing. In order to avoid this, you could mention all techniques (framing in a big picture) but focus on one or two based on logical criteria ''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''There is no annotated bibliography included in the article --> don’t forget to include it. The references in general looks okay. There is no clear citiation style (I think they want the Vancouver style); one cite error and an internet link without access date, author etc''

==Feedback 2 | Reviewer name: ''Place your name here''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Answer here''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''Answer here''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''Answer here''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''Answer here''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''Answer here''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''Answer here''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''Answer here''

Talk:Basic estimation techniques

2019-02-24T20:02:11Z

S182655:

==Feedback on Abstract:==

{|
|'''Text clarity & language'''|| The text is okay, however there's a few grammatical errors (e.g. "a manager has to achieve specific object within...").
|-
|'''Description of the tool/theory/concept'''|| Good. Perhaps include a definition of what estimation is?
|-
|'''Article purpose explanation'''|| Very good.
|-
|'''Relevance to curriculum '''|| Relevant
|-
|'''References'''|| Ensure to include references wherever needed.
|}

==Feedback 1 | Reviewer name: ''Andrea Könnecke''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?
Add summary before table of contents or add abstract/introduction chapter after table of content
===Answer 1===
'' The Abstract (Summary) gives a really good overview about the topic itself, the structure of the article and the connection to PPPM. Probably the text can be read easier when you write the questions (in italic) blow each other (use )''
''NB: I think resources covers time and money as well, so you could write “a manager has to achieve specific objects within the project resources such as time and budget” or similar. ''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
'' The logical flow of the article is very good as each technique (for now: three out of six) is described shortly, including advantages and application examples. The techniques are framed with an abstract, a general guideline (but without further text) and critique (only keypoints, but sounds promising) which is really good.''
''The structure of each technique text could be improved by using subchapters (Advantages, Application), bolt words (as titles) or italic text.''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
'' Overall, the grammar and spelling is good. But sometimes sentences are hard to read as they are long and consist of many subordinate clause; sometimes it’s better to put a full stop than a comma. There is a spelling mistake in figure 1. ''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
'' Both figures implemented in the article helps to better understand the key points of the article. However, there is a typo in figure 1 and fIgure 2 has an invalid cite tag. Try to use more figures as you are describing several tools  makes it easier to not get confused''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
'' As stated in the abstract, estimating is important for the planning/execution of a project. Knowing these techniques are therefore of practical and academic relevance. ’’

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
'' As stated above, the topic is relevant and therefore interesting to read. It includes all relevant techniques at a glance and mentions critique. But as the author describes six different techniques, there is a risk of a superficial writing. In order to avoid this, you could mention all techniques (framing in a big picture) but focus on one or two based on logical criteria ''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''There is no annotated bibliography included in the article --> don’t forget to include it. The references in general looks okay. There is no clear citiation style (I think they want the Vancouver style); one cite error and an internet link without access date, author etc''

==Feedback 2 | Reviewer name: ''Place your name here''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Answer here''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''Answer here''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''Answer here''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''Answer here''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''Answer here''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''Answer here''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''Answer here''

Talk:Basic estimation techniques

2019-02-24T20:01:24Z

S182655:

==Feedback on Abstract:==

{|
|'''Text clarity & language'''|| The text is okay, however there's a few grammatical errors (e.g. "a manager has to achieve specific object within...").
|-
|'''Description of the tool/theory/concept'''|| Good. Perhaps include a definition of what estimation is?
|-
|'''Article purpose explanation'''|| Very good.
|-
|'''Relevance to curriculum '''|| Relevant
|-
|'''References'''|| Ensure to include references wherever needed.
|}

==Feedback 1 | Reviewer name: ''Andrea Könnecke''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?
Add summary before table of contents or add abstract/introduction chapter after table of content
===Answer 1===
'' The Abstract (Summary) gives a really good overview about the topic itself, the structure of the article and the connection to PPPM. Probably the text can be read easier when you write the questions (in italic) blow each other (use )''
''NB: I think resources covers time and money as well, so you could write “a manager has to achieve specific objects within the project resources such as time and budget” or similar. ''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
'' The logical flow of the article is very good as each technique (for now: three out of six) is described shortly, including advantages and application examples. The techniques are framed with an abstract, a general guideline (but without further text) and critique (only keypoints, but sounds promising) which is really good.''
''The structure of each technique text could be improved by using subchapters (Advantages, Application), bolt words (as titles) or italic text.''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
'' Overall, the grammar and spelling is good. But sometimes sentences are hard to read as they are long and consist of many subordinate clause; sometimes it’s better to put a full stop than a comma. There is a spelling mistake in figure 1. ''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
'' Both figures implemented in the article helps to better understand the key points of the article. However, there is a typo in figure 1 and fIgure 2 has an invalid cite tag. Try to use more figures as you are describing several tools  makes it easier to not get confused''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
'' As stated in the abstract, estimating is important for the planning/execution of a project. Knowing these techniques are therefore of practical and academic relevance. ’’

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
'' As stated above, the topic is relevant and therefore interesting to read. It includes all relevant techniques at a glance and mentions critique. But as the author describes six different techniques, there is a risk of a superficial writing. In order to avoid this, you could mention all techniques (framing in a big picture) but focus on one or two based on logical criteria ''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''There is no annotated bibliography included in the article --> don’t forget to include it. The references in general looks okay. There is no clear citiation style (I think they want the Vancouver style); one cite error and an internet link without access date, author etc''

==Feedback 2 | Reviewer name: ''Place your name here''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Answer here''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''Answer here''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''Answer here''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''Answer here''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''Answer here''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''Answer here''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''Answer here''

Talk:Requirements management using SysML

2019-02-23T14:53:54Z

S182655: /* Answer 4 */

==Feedback on Abstract:==

The abstract seems incomplete. However, please find my immediate feedback below (19-Feb-2019)

{|
|'''Text clarity & language'''|| The text is okay, however there's a lack of flow/consistency (too many dotted lines).
|-
|'''Description of the tool/theory/concept'''|| Good.
|-
|'''Article purpose explanation'''|| Good. Ensure to emphasize how the tool is relevant and its project/program/portfolio management without getting into too much technical detail about the modelling language itself.
|-
|'''Relevance to curriculum '''|| Relevant
|-
|'''References'''|| Good references.
|}

==Feedback 1 | Reviewer name: ''Andrea Könnecke''==
Article draft seems to be incomplete. Therefore it's sometimes hard to give an in-depth feedback
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Abstract needs to be completed. However it shows a good structure including the insights of the article and the connection to PPP management''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''The structure of the article is okay. Try to use subchapter, include overall limitations''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''The grammar is okay, there are some spelling mistakes''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''for now, there are no tables/figures --> try to use figures in the description of each approach ''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''According the abstract, this topic is relevant for PPP Management. Furthermore, it is probably relevant in an academic and practical way as many of the students who are studying engineering management don’t know anything about modelling languages  can give a good overview.
Try to be as deep and precise but understandable as possible while writing the article (for people without background knowledge)''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''It can make a good contribution as it focusses on one specific modelling language in the context of PPP Management.''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''No Annotated bibliography. No references throughout the whole article. One single reference (without source, author, date etc) Remember to use Vancouver citation style''

==Feedback 2 | Reviewer name: ''Place your name here''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Answer here''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''Answer here''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''Answer here''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''Answer here''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''Answer here''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''Answer here''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''Answer here''

Talk:Requirements management using SysML

2019-02-23T14:53:37Z

S182655: /* Feedback 1 | Reviewer name: Andrea Könnecke */

==Feedback on Abstract:==

The abstract seems incomplete. However, please find my immediate feedback below (19-Feb-2019)

{|
|'''Text clarity & language'''|| The text is okay, however there's a lack of flow/consistency (too many dotted lines).
|-
|'''Description of the tool/theory/concept'''|| Good.
|-
|'''Article purpose explanation'''|| Good. Ensure to emphasize how the tool is relevant and its project/program/portfolio management without getting into too much technical detail about the modelling language itself.
|-
|'''Relevance to curriculum '''|| Relevant
|-
|'''References'''|| Good references.
|}

==Feedback 1 | Reviewer name: ''Andrea Könnecke''==
Article draft seems to be incomplete. Therefore it's sometimes hard to give an in-depth feedback
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Abstract needs to be completed. However it shows a good structure including the insights of the article and the connection to PPP management''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''The structure of the article is okay. Try to use subchapter, include overall limitations''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''The grammar is okay, there are some spelling mistakes''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''for now, there are no tables/figures  try to use figures in the description of each approach ''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''According the abstract, this topic is relevant for PPP Management. Furthermore, it is probably relevant in an academic and practical way as many of the students who are studying engineering management don’t know anything about modelling languages  can give a good overview.
Try to be as deep and precise but understandable as possible while writing the article (for people without background knowledge)''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''It can make a good contribution as it focusses on one specific modelling language in the context of PPP Management.''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''No Annotated bibliography. No references throughout the whole article. One single reference (without source, author, date etc) Remember to use Vancouver citation style''

==Feedback 2 | Reviewer name: ''Place your name here''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Answer here''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''Answer here''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''Answer here''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''Answer here''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''Answer here''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''Answer here''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''Answer here''

Talk:Requirements management using SysML

2019-02-23T14:52:39Z

S182655: /* Feedback on Abstract: */

==Feedback on Abstract:==

The abstract seems incomplete. However, please find my immediate feedback below (19-Feb-2019)

{|
|'''Text clarity & language'''|| The text is okay, however there's a lack of flow/consistency (too many dotted lines).
|-
|'''Description of the tool/theory/concept'''|| Good.
|-
|'''Article purpose explanation'''|| Good. Ensure to emphasize how the tool is relevant and its project/program/portfolio management without getting into too much technical detail about the modelling language itself.
|-
|'''Relevance to curriculum '''|| Relevant
|-
|'''References'''|| Good references.
|}

==Feedback 1 | Reviewer name: ''Andrea Könnecke''==
Article draft seems to be incomplete.
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Abstract needs to be completed. However it shows a good structure including the insights of the article and the connection to PPP management''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''The structure of the article is okay. Try to use subchapter, include overall limitations''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''The grammar is okay, there are some spelling mistakes''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''for now, there are no tables/figures  try to use figures in the description of each approach ''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''According the abstract, this topic is relevant for PPP Management. Furthermore, it is probably relevant in an academic and practical way as many of the students who are studying engineering management don’t know anything about modelling languages  can give a good overview.
Try to be as deep and precise but understandable as possible while writing the article (for people without background knowledge)''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''It can make a good contribution as it focusses on one specific modelling language in the context of PPP Management.''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''No Annotated bibliography. No references throughout the whole article. One single reference (without source, author, date etc) Remember to use Vancouver citation style''

==Feedback 2 | Reviewer name: ''Place your name here''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Answer here''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''Answer here''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''Answer here''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''Answer here''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''Answer here''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''Answer here''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''Answer here''

Talk:Basic estimation techniques

2019-02-23T14:50:28Z

S182655: /* Answer 2 */

==Feedback on Abstract:==

{|
|'''Text clarity & language'''|| The text is okay, however there's a few grammatical errors (e.g. "a manager has to achieve specific object within...").
|-
|'''Description of the tool/theory/concept'''|| Good. Perhaps include a definition of what estimation is?
|-
|'''Article purpose explanation'''|| Very good.
|-
|'''Relevance to curriculum '''|| Relevant
|-
|'''References'''|| Ensure to include references wherever needed.
|}

==Feedback 1 | Reviewer name: ''Andrea Könnecke''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?
Add summary before table of contents or add abstract/introduction chapter after table of content
===Answer 1===
'' The Abstract (Summary) gives a really good overview about the topic itself, the structure of the article and the connection to PPPM. Probably the text can be read easier when you write the questions (in italic) blow each other (use )''
''NB: I think resources covers time and money as well, so you could write “a manager has to achieve specific objects within the project resources such as time and budget” or similar. ''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
'' The logical flow of the article is very good as each technique (for now: three out of six) is described shortly, including advantages and application examples. The techniques are framed with an abstract, a general guideline (but without further text) and critique (only keypoints, but sounds promising) which is really good.''
''The structure of each technique text could be improved by using subchapters (Advantages, Application), bolt words (as titles) or italic text.''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
'' Overall, the grammar and spelling is good. But sometimes sentences are hard to read as they are long and consist of many subordinate clause; sometimes it’s better to put a full stop than a comma. There is a spelling mistake in figure 1. ''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
'' Both figures implemented in the article helps to better understand the key points of the article. However, there is a typo in figure 1 and fIgure 2 has an invalid cite tag. Try to use more figures as you are describing several tools  makes it easier to not get confused''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
'' As stated in the abstract, estimating is important for the planning/execution of a project. Knowing these techniques are therefore of practical and academic relevance. ’’

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
'' As stated above, the topic is relevant and therefore interesting to read. It includes all relevant techniques at a glance and mentions critique. But as the author describes six different techniques, there is a risk of a superficial writing. In order to avoid this, you could mention all techniques (framing in a big picture) but focus on one or two based on logical criteria ''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''There is no annotated bibliography included in the article --> don’t forget to include it. The references in general looks okay. There is no clear citiation style (I think they want the Vancouver style); one cite error and an internet link without access date, author etc''

==Feedback 2 | Reviewer name: ''Place your name here''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Answer here''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''Answer here''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''Answer here''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''Answer here''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''Answer here''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''Answer here''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''Answer here''

Talk:Basic estimation techniques

2019-02-23T14:49:55Z

S182655: /* Answer 1 */

==Feedback on Abstract:==

{|
|'''Text clarity & language'''|| The text is okay, however there's a few grammatical errors (e.g. "a manager has to achieve specific object within...").
|-
|'''Description of the tool/theory/concept'''|| Good. Perhaps include a definition of what estimation is?
|-
|'''Article purpose explanation'''|| Very good.
|-
|'''Relevance to curriculum '''|| Relevant
|-
|'''References'''|| Ensure to include references wherever needed.
|}

==Feedback 1 | Reviewer name: ''Andrea Könnecke''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?
Add summary before table of contents or add abstract/introduction chapter after table of content
===Answer 1===
'' The Abstract (Summary) gives a really good overview about the topic itself, the structure of the article and the connection to PPPM. Probably the text can be read easier when you write the questions (in italic) blow each other (use )''
''NB: I think resources covers time and money as well, so you could write “a manager has to achieve specific objects within the project resources such as time and budget” or similar. ''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
'' the logical flow of the article is very good as each technique (for now: three out of six) is described shortly, including advantages and application examples. The techniques are framed with an abstract, a general guideline (but without further text) and critique (only keypoints, but sounds promising) which is really good.
The structure of each technique text could be improved by using subchapters (Advantages, Application), bolt words (as titles) or italic text''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
'' Overall, the grammar and spelling is good. But sometimes sentences are hard to read as they are long and consist of many subordinate clause; sometimes it’s better to put a full stop than a comma. There is a spelling mistake in figure 1. ''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
'' Both figures implemented in the article helps to better understand the key points of the article. However, there is a typo in figure 1 and fIgure 2 has an invalid cite tag. Try to use more figures as you are describing several tools  makes it easier to not get confused''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
'' As stated in the abstract, estimating is important for the planning/execution of a project. Knowing these techniques are therefore of practical and academic relevance. ’’

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
'' As stated above, the topic is relevant and therefore interesting to read. It includes all relevant techniques at a glance and mentions critique. But as the author describes six different techniques, there is a risk of a superficial writing. In order to avoid this, you could mention all techniques (framing in a big picture) but focus on one or two based on logical criteria ''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''There is no annotated bibliography included in the article --> don’t forget to include it. The references in general looks okay. There is no clear citiation style (I think they want the Vancouver style); one cite error and an internet link without access date, author etc''

==Feedback 2 | Reviewer name: ''Place your name here''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Answer here''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''Answer here''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''Answer here''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''Answer here''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''Answer here''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''Answer here''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''Answer here''

Talk:Basic estimation techniques

2019-02-23T14:49:15Z

S182655: /* Answer 7 */

==Feedback on Abstract:==

{|
|'''Text clarity & language'''|| The text is okay, however there's a few grammatical errors (e.g. "a manager has to achieve specific object within...").
|-
|'''Description of the tool/theory/concept'''|| Good. Perhaps include a definition of what estimation is?
|-
|'''Article purpose explanation'''|| Very good.
|-
|'''Relevance to curriculum '''|| Relevant
|-
|'''References'''|| Ensure to include references wherever needed.
|}

==Feedback 1 | Reviewer name: ''Andrea Könnecke''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?
Add summary before table of contents or add abstract/introduction chapter after table of content
===Answer 1===
'' The Abstract (Summary) gives a really good overview about the topic itself, the structure of the article and the connection to PPPM. Probably the text can be read easier when you write the questions (in italic) blow each other (use )
NB: I think resources covers time and money as well, so you could write “a manager has to achieve specific objects within the project resources such as time and budget” or similar. ''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
'' the logical flow of the article is very good as each technique (for now: three out of six) is described shortly, including advantages and application examples. The techniques are framed with an abstract, a general guideline (but without further text) and critique (only keypoints, but sounds promising) which is really good.
The structure of each technique text could be improved by using subchapters (Advantages, Application), bolt words (as titles) or italic text''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
'' Overall, the grammar and spelling is good. But sometimes sentences are hard to read as they are long and consist of many subordinate clause; sometimes it’s better to put a full stop than a comma. There is a spelling mistake in figure 1. ''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
'' Both figures implemented in the article helps to better understand the key points of the article. However, there is a typo in figure 1 and fIgure 2 has an invalid cite tag. Try to use more figures as you are describing several tools  makes it easier to not get confused''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
'' As stated in the abstract, estimating is important for the planning/execution of a project. Knowing these techniques are therefore of practical and academic relevance. ’’

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
'' As stated above, the topic is relevant and therefore interesting to read. It includes all relevant techniques at a glance and mentions critique. But as the author describes six different techniques, there is a risk of a superficial writing. In order to avoid this, you could mention all techniques (framing in a big picture) but focus on one or two based on logical criteria ''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''There is no annotated bibliography included in the article --> don’t forget to include it. The references in general looks okay. There is no clear citiation style (I think they want the Vancouver style); one cite error and an internet link without access date, author etc''

==Feedback 2 | Reviewer name: ''Place your name here''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Answer here''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''Answer here''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''Answer here''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''Answer here''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''Answer here''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''Answer here''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''Answer here''

Talk:Basic estimation techniques

2019-02-23T14:48:32Z

S182655: /* Answer 6 */

==Feedback on Abstract:==

{|
|'''Text clarity & language'''|| The text is okay, however there's a few grammatical errors (e.g. "a manager has to achieve specific object within...").
|-
|'''Description of the tool/theory/concept'''|| Good. Perhaps include a definition of what estimation is?
|-
|'''Article purpose explanation'''|| Very good.
|-
|'''Relevance to curriculum '''|| Relevant
|-
|'''References'''|| Ensure to include references wherever needed.
|}

==Feedback 1 | Reviewer name: ''Andrea Könnecke''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?
Add summary before table of contents or add abstract/introduction chapter after table of content
===Answer 1===
'' The Abstract (Summary) gives a really good overview about the topic itself, the structure of the article and the connection to PPPM. Probably the text can be read easier when you write the questions (in italic) blow each other (use )
NB: I think resources covers time and money as well, so you could write “a manager has to achieve specific objects within the project resources such as time and budget” or similar. ''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
'' the logical flow of the article is very good as each technique (for now: three out of six) is described shortly, including advantages and application examples. The techniques are framed with an abstract, a general guideline (but without further text) and critique (only keypoints, but sounds promising) which is really good.
The structure of each technique text could be improved by using subchapters (Advantages, Application), bolt words (as titles) or italic text''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
'' Overall, the grammar and spelling is good. But sometimes sentences are hard to read as they are long and consist of many subordinate clause; sometimes it’s better to put a full stop than a comma. There is a spelling mistake in figure 1. ''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
'' Both figures implemented in the article helps to better understand the key points of the article. However, there is a typo in figure 1 and fIgure 2 has an invalid cite tag. Try to use more figures as you are describing several tools  makes it easier to not get confused''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
'' As stated in the abstract, estimating is important for the planning/execution of a project. Knowing these techniques are therefore of practical and academic relevance. ’’

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
'' As stated above, the topic is relevant and therefore interesting to read. It includes all relevant techniques at a glance and mentions critique. But as the author describes six different techniques, there is a risk of a superficial writing. In order to avoid this, you could mention all techniques (framing in a big picture) but focus on one or two based on logical criteria ''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''There is no annotated bibliography included in the article  don’t forget to include it.
The references in general looks okay. There is no clear citiation style (I think they want the Vancouver style); one cite error and an internet link without access date, author etc''

==Feedback 2 | Reviewer name: ''Place your name here''==
===Question 1 · TEXT===
'''Quality of the summary:'''

Does the summary make the key focus, insights and/or contribution of the article clear?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 1===
''Answer here''

===Question 2 · TEXT===
'''Structure and logic of the article:'''

Is the argument clear?

Is there a logical flow to the article?

Does one part build upon the other?

Is the article consistent in its argument and free of contradictions?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 2===
''Answer here''

===Question 3 · TEXT===
'''Grammar and style:'''

Is the writing free of grammatical and spelling errors?

Is the language precise without unnecessary fill words?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 3===
''Answer here''

===Question 4 · TEXT===
'''Figures and tables:'''

Are figures and tables clear?

Do they summarize the key points of the article in a meaningful way?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 4===
''Answer here''

===Question 5 · TEXT===
'''Interest and relevance:'''

Is the article of high practical and / or academic relevance?

Is it made clear in the article why / how it is relevant?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 5===
''Answer here''

===Question 6 · TEXT===
'''Depth of treatment:'''

Is the article interesting for a practitioner or academic to read?

Does it make a significant contribution beyond a cursory web search?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 6===
''Answer here''

===Question 7 · TEXT===
'''Annotated bibliography:'''

Does the article properly cite and acknowledge previous work?

Does it briefly summarize the key references at the end of the article?

Is it based on empirical data instead of opinion?

What would you suggest to improve?

===Answer 7===
''Answer here''