DTU ProjectLab - User contributions [en-gb]

Articles Spring Term 2021

2021-03-03T14:02:25Z

Jacob Lützhøft: /* Overview of 2021 Wiki Collections */

=Overview of 2021 Wiki Collections=

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Spring Term 2021 Wiki Collections
|Group name
|First name
|Surname
|Student number
|[[Article name]]
|-
|-
|TAs Example
|Thomas
|Giannoulopoulos
|s192419
|[[APPM Example 2021]]
|-
|-
|Group 12
|Christian
|Frøsig
|s175044
|[[Belbin's 9 team roles]]
|-
|-
|Group 1
|Oliver
|K. Vittrup
|s163754
|[[Top-down vs bottom-up estimations]]
|-
|-
|44
|Jeyad
|M. Baig
|s153585
|[[Planning Methods - 3 Levels of Project Planning]]
|-
|-
|Group 17
|Quoc-Khanh Rose-Marie Therese
|Madsen
|s123462
|[[Applying Tuckman’s model for team development]]
|-
|-
|31
|Haoxiang
|Sang
|s192258
|[[Cost control with statistic tools]]
|-
|-
|Group 31
|He
|Fan
|s192195
|[[Work Break-down Structure]]
|-
|-
|Group 19
|Ángel
|Castro del Olmo
|s193246
|[[Stakeholder Engagement and Sustainability in Maritime Spatial Planning]]
|-
|-
|44
|Abdullah Shams
|Turkmani
|s153337
|[[ICT Agreement]]
|-
|-
|Group 17
|Jacopo
|Renzi
|s210445
|[[Double Diamond in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 35
|Helga Sigríður
|Magnúsdóttir
|s202027
|[[Network Planning]]
|-
|-
|12
|Cæcilie
|Kortbæk
|163873
|[[Double diamond]]
|-
|-
|Group 18
|Frithjof Johannes
|Thiem
|s202972
|[[DevOps]]
|-
|-
|12
|Emilie
|Winther Schmidt
|163884
|[[Iron Triangle]]
|-
|-
|12
|Anna
|Fredgaard
|s163887
|[[Active Listening Technique]]
|-
|-
|35
|Ruben
|Raes
|s202029
|[[Iron Triangle of Project Management]]
|-
|-
|21
|Claudia
|Balcells
|s202939
|[[APPPM Issue Tree]]
|-
|-
|35
|Brynja
|Gudmundsdottir
|s202030
|[[FAST goals]]
|-
|-
|16
|Andrea
|Pin Morales
|s205567
|[[The Business Case]]
|-
|-
|16
|Lena Maria
|Thyen
|s202969
|[[The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People for Successful Leadership]]
|-
|-
|35
|Úlfar
|Viktorsson
|s202022
|[[The 4 Disciplines of Execution]]
|-
|-
|16
|Moritz
|Rindermann
|s202976
|[[Tuckmans model for Team Development]]
|-
|-
|Group 29
|Heiðdís Ósk
|Pétursdóttir
|s202025
|[[Efficiency and Effectiveness]]
|-
|-
|31
|Xabier
|Martínez de Zabarte
|s210323
|[[Scrumban]]
|-
|-
|17
|Aldís Braga
|Eiríksdóttir
|s202045
|[[Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid]]
|-
|-
|32
|Jan Otis
| Ernst
|s210433
|[[RACI Matrix]]
|-
|-
|3
|Julie
| Finne-Ipsen
|s153987
|[[Kahneman - Two Thinking Systems]]
|-
|-
|24
|Maria Eileen
| Hubbuck
|s210444
|[[Risk Management-Identification]]
|-
|-
|11
|Alina
| Barun
|s202514
|[[Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs]]
|-
|-
|24
|Felix Vinzenz
|Wütherich
|s202968
|[[Emotional Intelligence and Leadership]]
|-
|-
|28
|Ariadna
|Ramos
|s191852
|[[The Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)]]
|-
|-
|Group 27
|Jakob
|Grønvald
|s164346
|[[Maslow‘s Hierarchy of Needs, Motivation in the workplace]]
|-
|-
|Group 16
|Martina
|Rampazzo
|s202895
|[[Earned value management (EVM)]]
|-
|-
|Group 2
|John
|Fritz
|s202967
|[[Learning plan]]
|-
|-
|Group 24
|Henning
|Duwe
|s210450
|[[SWOT Analysis]]
|-
|-
|Group 14
|Søren Emil
|Kjær
|s201528
|[[GANTT]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Mathilde Kremmer
|Broberg
|s175074
|[[Corrective and Preventive Actions (CAPA)]]
|-
|-
|Group 14
|Rune Lykke
|Høg
|s165012
|[[The use of the A3 management process]]
|-
|-
|Group 35
|Tinna Hrönn
|Unudóttir
|s202032
|[[Constructive communication]]
|-
|-
|Group 17
|Eva Rún
|Arnarsdóttir
|s203214
|[[Biases in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 24
|Astrid
|Skovhus
|s164499
|[[Getting Things Done (GTD)]]
|-
|-
|Group 7
|Phillip
|Dyrberg
|s164503
|[[Double diamond: A design process model]]
|-
|-
|Group 14
|Amanda Emilie
|Søborg Berthelsen
|s154707
|[[The Johari Window]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Nicolai Mossing
|Madsen
|s164515
|[[SMART Goals (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Time-bound)]]
|-
|-
|Group 27
|Marie-Louise Wolfsberg
|Schmidt
|s164417
|[[The Affect Heuristic]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Erika Marie
|Strøm
|s203224
|[[Parkinson's Law in Project Schedule Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 16
|Beatrice
|Ranzato
|s202887
|[[X-Matrix Hoshin Kanri]]
|-
|-
|Group 9
|Helene Waldmann
|Jørgensen
|s173891
|[[Lag & Lead]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Zahra
|Al-Mosawi
|s193938
|[[Belbin Team Roles in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 14
|William Axel Linderoth
|Michaelen
|s153275
|[[Design-Build]]
|-
|-
|Group 31
|Jesús
|Gracia Yoldi
|s210111
|[[Kanban in APPPM]]
|-
|-
|Group 35
|Katrín Erla
|Bergsveinsdóttir
|s202026
|[[Contingency plans]]
|-
|-
|Group 1
|Cecilie Marie Raagaard
|Christensen
|s160832
|[[Work breakdown structure (WBS)]]
|-
|-
|Group 19
|Ali Jamal
|Jomeh
|s173741
|[[SMART goals: A goal-setting technique]]
|-
|-
|Group 15
|Tobias
|Hyldmo
|s206658
|[[High performing teams]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Samah
|Said
|s203228
|[[Reference class forecasting]]
|-
|-
|Group 3
|Emilie
|Torp
|s153320
|[[Goal Hierarchy]]
|-
|-
|Group 3
|Victor Nørregaard
|Schwærter
|s164745
|[[Milestone Planning]]
|-
|-
|Group 9
|Jacob
|Ammitsøe
|s173849
|[[Authenticity]]
|-
|-
|Group 18
|Anna
|Bjørn Reland
|s154556
|[[Choosing the appropriate medium (oral – written – hybrids)]]
|-
|-
|Group 10
|Wail
|Atrari
|s170706
|[[The Double Diamond Tool: An efficient Project Management Tool]]
|-
|Group 10
|Helená Evin
|Cinar
|s164741
|[[SWOT Analysis Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 10
|Mohammad
|Abou Hassan
|s160101
|[[Implementing SWOT]]
|-
|-
|Group 10
|Ahmet
|Akgül
|s152597
|[[Smart goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Timely)]]
|-
|-
|Group 2
|Amalie
|N. Müller
|s173675
|[[Big five personality traits (OCEAN model)]]
|-
|-
|Group 29
|Pétursdóttir
|Stefanía Ósk
|s202044
|[[Situational leadership - Hersey and Blanchard]]
|-
|-
|Group 10
|Abdulahi
|Hayle Hassan
|s164691
|[[Stakeholder management]]
|-
|-
|Group 27
|Louise
|Landschoff
|s165111
|[[SCRUM - A Project Management Framework]]
|-
|-
|Group 10
|Sara
|Alabiidi
|s164650
|[[The Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Felix
|Dressel
|s202965
|[[The SPALTEN Problem-Solving Methodology as a Decision Making Tool in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 11
|Sandra
|Nielsen
|s153370
|[[Conflict ladder]]
|-
|-
|Group 11
|Lise Munch
|Nordheim
|s200400
|[[McGregor's X & Y theory]]
|-
|-
|Group 2
|Simon
|Knutsson
|s202041
|[[Earned Value Management (EVM)]]
|-
|-
|Group 12
|Christoffer
|Askgaard
|s165098
|[[Design the team you need to succeed using Belbin's team roles]]
|-
|-
|Group 24
|Gaute Bø
|Aaløkken
|s202065
|[[Diversity in teams]]
|-
|-
|Group 2
|Lukas
|Tanzer
|s200120
|[[Kanban]]
|-
|-
|Group 7
|Sofie
|Lundsteen
|s170285
|[[Creating effective teams with the use of Belbin's Team Roles]]
|-
|-
|Group 14
|FIRST NAME
|LAST NAME
|STUDY ID
|[[Applying the Hawthorne studies to project management]]
|-
|-
|Group 3
|Amalie Nordstrøm
|Nielsen
|s153272
|[[The seven characteristic principles]]
|-
|-
|Group 14
|Louise Damborg
|Frederiksen
|s185238
|[[Using Facilitation to Mitigate Bias in a Team Setting]]
|-
|-
|Group 1
|Georg Holger
|Waage
|s163819
|[[Fishbone Diagram]]
|-
|-
|Group 28
|Özgenur
|Baştuğ
|s203033
|[[Change Orders in Construction Projects]]
|-
|-
|Group 9
|Mads
|Møhlenberg
|s173879
|[[A hybrid consisting of Agile and Stage Gate]]
|-
|-
|Group 29
|Svanhvít Birta
|Guðmundsdóttir
|s203174
|[[Project Milestones]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Bente
|Meidahl Münsberg
|s175068
|[[Gantt Charts]]
|-
|-
|Group 27
|Frederik
|Carlsson
|s164345
|[[FAST Goals]]
|-
|-
|Group 11
|Tobias
|Rydahl
|s200471
|[[Using DISC assessment for project team management]]
|-
|-
|Group 7
|Mads
|Støjfer-Hønberg
|s174303
|[[SCRUM - An Agile Project Management Framework]]
|-
|-
|Group 21
|Matthieu
|Buy
|s202925
|[[The Five-Factor Model (OCEAN)]]
|-
|-
|Group 18
|Astrid Helene
|Erecius
|s171013
|[[Choosing communication media for negotiation]]
|-
|-
|Group 44
|Zainab
|Jalal
|s165491
|[[Work Breakdown Structure in project management]]
|-
|-
|Group 2
|Anna Felicia Mai
|Lindström
|s202046
|[[Project Status Reporting]]
|-
|-
|Group 28
|Alberto
|Melloni
|s202894
|[[Pre-mortem analysis]]
|-
|-
|Group 29
|Thore Uwe
|Aye
|s202746
|[[Quality Gates in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 9
|Lydia
|Tsintzou
|s193745
|[[SWOT Analysis Guide]]
|-
|-
|Group 28
|Kendra Ana
|Rodríguez López
|s200182
|[[Choosing by Advantages Decision-Making System]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Rasmus
|Engberg
|s164513
|[[RDM]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Christine
|Fryland
|s153875
|[[Theory X-Y in project management]]
|-
|-
|Group 28
|Manas P.
|Dalvi
|s210143
|[[Effective Tools for Multiple Project Management]]
-
|-
|Group 12
|Joakim
|Vollertzen
|s163947
|[[Extreme Project Management (XPM)]]
|-
|-
|Group 19
|Shubham
|Ingole
|s200092
|[[Stakeholder Management using Social Network Theory]]
|-
|-
|Group 31
|Alvaro
|Bello
|s210447
|[[Forecasting and estimation techniques]]
|-
|-
|Group 09
|Dorothea
|Georgiadou
|s200230
|[[Risk Register analysis]]
|-
|-
|Group 09
|Maria Konstantina
|Papaioannou
|s195550
|[[Fishbone diagram analysis]]
|-
|-
|Group 21
|Kelvin
|Scott-Fordsmand
|s174312
|[[RiskRegister]]
|-
|-
|Group 18
|Christoffer Friis
|Hansen
|s164569
|[[Identifying risk]]
|-
|-
|Group 1
|Giulia
|Zanelli
|s205701
|[[Earned Value Management - EVM]]
|-
|-
|Group 29
|Tinna
|Dofradottir
|s203177
|[[Adaptive Project Framework]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Jonatan Larsen
|Edry
|s165499
|[[The iron triangle as an analytical tool]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Mikkel Walther
|Hellesen
|s203227
|[[System Readiness Level Index]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Yamila Denise
|Aviles
|s203409
|[[Agile Release Train]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Kallina
|Karamitsiou
|s202249
|[[Kahneman's dual-system thinking]]
|-
|-
|Group 19
|Prasad
|Jagtap
|s200109
|[[Communication Management using Service Blueprint]]
|-
|-
|Group 3
|Johan Holger
|Rasmussen
|s210512
|[[Daniel Kahneman's two systems of thinking]]
|-
|-
|Group 18
|Sigrún Björk
|Sævarsdóttir
|s200165
|[[The Scrum framework]]
|-
|-
|Group 1
|Francesca
|Pieraccini
|s206673
|[[Double Diamond model]]
|-
|-
|Group 15
|Dionysios
|Dasopoulos
|s202916
|[[Tuckman's Model for Sustainable Team Development]]
|-
|-
|Group 15
|Joern
|Appelt
|s202854
|[[Intrinsic Motivation]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Oliver
|Karlsson
|s165080
|[[Double Diamond Model]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Victor
|Soler Fuertes
|s206040
|[[OKR - Objectives and Key Results]]
|-
|-
|Group 31
|João
|Ferreira
|s202867
|[[Psychological safety as a key factor to quality and productivity of Organizations]]
|-
|-
|Group 31
|Timo
|Scheitinger
|s202966
|[[The big five (OCEAN)]]
|-
|-
|Group 15
|Maria-Lito
|Glykioti
|s151256
|[[The role of Emotional Intelligence in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 15
|Hafeez
|Ahmadi
|s164137
|[[ISM Principles of Change]]
|-
|-
|Group 21
|Magnus Riis
|Gregersen
|s214321
|[[Gantt Chart Scheduling]]
|-
|-
|Group 18
|Marie Elly Ulricke
|Kristensen
|s144408
|[[Motivation through Theory X&Y from a Project Management perspective]]
|-
|-
|Group 18
|Christopher
|Burgdorf
|s154689
|[[Simple Multi-Attribute Rating Technique (SMART)]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Ishak
|Zaaimia
|s164631
|[[Parkinson's Law]]
|-
|-
|Group 11
|Sara Ballegaard
|Laursen
|s193723
|[[Organizational Socialization]]
|-
|-
|Group 19
|Ali Waleed
|Abbas
|s172841
|[[Fishbone diagram for root cause analysis]]
|-
|-
|Group 17
|Cecilia
|Thuy Duyen Nguyen-Cong
|s184300
|[[The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People by Stephen R. Covey]]
|-
|-
|Group 44
|Farah
|Sabri
|s164740
|[[Lack of communication in project management]]
|-
|-
|Group 1
|Shakila
|Khan Malik
|s173780
|[[Risk]]
|-
|-
|Group 27
|Asbjørn Martin
|Kruuse
|s153470
|[[Chairing a meeting]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Tummas Dímun
|Mohr
|s160129
|[[Project Dashboards]]
|-
|-
|Group 27
|Vanessa
|Clausen
|s183302
|[[Overcoming small-big projects (Gantt)]]
|-
|-
|Group 09
|Emil
|Ballermann
|s174393
|[[Parkinson's law and how to manage it]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Gian Marco
|Grieco
|s202893
|[[Parkinson's Law: achieving more in less time]]
|-
|-
|Group 44
|Shahad
|Abdelaziz
|s122945
|[[Outsourcing]]
|-
|-
|Group 3
|Tais
|Christiansen
|s165131
|[[Relationship of projects, programs and portfolios]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Sana
|Ilyas
|s192815
|[[SCRUM framework]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Mia Chrstine
|Wheitman
|s206053
|[[The use of Gantt Charts]]
|-
|-
|Group 35
|Sigurjón Bjarni
|Bjarnason
|s202049
|[[The Work breakdown structure(WBS)]]
|-
|-
|Group 19
|Morten Dam
|Laursen
|s200364
|[[Multiple Project Management: Summary, Theory and Improvement]]
|-
|-
|Group 29
|Céline Engelbrecht
|Galea-Larsen
|s147312
|[[Group Development - The Tuckman Model]]
|-
|-
|Group 28
|Hazal
|Alawi
|s180408
|[[The Double Diamond Framework]]
|-
|-
|Group 17
|Xenia
|Jørgensen
|s123633
|[[Teams - Creation and optimisation]]
|-
|-
|Group 11
|Jonas
|Bøje Simonsen
|s154089
|[[Logic tree and the Answer First Methodology]]
|-
|-
|Group 28
|Kavikrishnan
|Balakrishnan
|s164338
|[[Learning plans for high uncertainty projects]]
|-
|-
|Group 2
|Riccardo
|Pollacchini
|s192412
|[[Complex Project Management (CPM)]]
|-
|-
|Group 44
|Rokiya
|Ahmed Ramzy
|s170501
|[[Lean in construction industry]]
|-
|-
|Group 50
|Avishkar Anil
|Vadnere
|s206513
|[[Strategic Planning using SWOT analysis]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Niels
|Tietgen
|s193191
|[[Microsoft Teams]]
|-
|-
|Group 29
|Bastien
|Haas
|s202932
|[[The 7 habits of highly effective people applied to Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 17
|Jacob
|Lützhøft Christensen
|s184113
|[[Lag and Lead]]
|-

Lag and Lead

2021-02-28T22:39:33Z

Jacob Lützhøft: /* References */

''Jacob Lützhøft Christensen s184113''

In the field of project schedule management, the terms lag and lead are widely utilised to maintain project schedule by determining possibilities of schedule advancement or delay. A lead is the amount of time a successor activity can be advanced with respect to a predecessor activity. <ref name="PMBOK">[https://app-knovel-com.proxy.findit.dtu.dk/web/toc.v/cid:kpGPMBKP02/viewerType:toc//root_slug:viewerType%3Atoc/url_slug:root_slug%3Aguide-project-management?kpromoter=federation ''Project Management: A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK guide) 6th Edition'', Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI), 2017]</ref> A lag is the amount of time a successor activity will be delayed with respect to a predecessor activity. <ref name="PMBOK"/> Traditionally the measure of project success has been limited to concepts of time, quality and cost, however these concepts might not provide a full picture of project success. <ref name="Prince2">[https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.proxy.findit.dtu.dk/lib/DTUDK/detail.action?docID=4863041 ''Project Management: "Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2" 6th Edition'', AXELOS and Office Cabinet, 2017]</ref> In the traditional sense of project success, lag and lead has had an important role in fulfilling the need of time management in projects, however the terms of lag and lead are not purely schedule management tools. According to the project management standard PRINCE 2, the status of projects are best measured for one point in time by its key performance indicators (KPI), which should be balanced between qualitative and quantitative measures, leading and lagging indicators, and project inputs and outputs. <ref name="Prince2"/>

A key perfomance indicator (KPI) is a measure of performance that is used to help an organization define and evaluate how successful it is in making progress towards its organizational objectives. <ref name="Prince2"/> These indicators are widely used in organisational contexts, to measure, record, predict and improve perfomance. Indicators for future and past performances are time-based indicators which are distinguished by the terms: lag and lead indicators. This means that lag and lead are not limited to scheduling activities in a task sequence format, but can be used as indicators to determine the perfomance of a project's quality and cost at a given time as well.

----
= Big Idea =

Lag and lead can be powerful tools both for project schedule management and as key perfomance indicators. In order to ensure or measure project success it is essential to learn how and when to use these terms, and their limitations.

For schedule management lag and lead are mostly used for sequencing activities. Sequence activity is the process of identifying and documenting relationships among the project activities. <ref name="PMBOK"/> The benefit for this is to define a logical relationship between processes, and thereby obtaining an order of activities that is the most efficient path towards the realization of the project, given all project constraints. This order of activities should then be used to formulate a realistic project schedule. For the project schedule to be realistic, the implementation of tools and techniques such as lead and lag times are necessary. Given the uncertainty aspect of projects, usually for a project schedule to be maintained throughout the project's lifetime, lag and lead are used to either advance or delay certain activities in relation to either its predecessor or successor activities. If lag and lead times were determined for all activities before the project commenced the schedule will be unaffected in a situation of a slight unexpected delay.

As key perfomance indicators lag and lead is incredibly co-dependant and can be used as indication for project performance, cost, quality and more.

A lead indicator, is an indicator which is forward looking. Meaning it attempts to show a future perfomance. These indicators can be difficult to determine, as they are prone to subjectivity and error, and can cause debate as to the validity of the lead indicators measured. <ref name="intra">[https://www.intrafocus.com/lead-and-lag-indicators/ ''Lead and Lag Indicators'', Intrafocus, Last visited: 14/02/21]</ref>. Lagging indicators measure historical perfomance, and tends to focus on outcomes. This makes them easy to record, and they are essential for charting progress, however they do not influence the future as lead indicators do. The power of lead indicators is that they have the ability to predict future conditions, and allow you to take preemptive actions in order to achieve strategic goals. However to predict future conditions, it is necessary to use lagging indicators which essentially record current conditions. These indicators can in combination be applied to determine trends and record the degree of success of pursuing these trends.

= Application =

== Using Lag and Lead as Key Performance Indicators ==
From the british standard for project management "Prince 2", the definition of lead and lag indicators is: <ref name="Prince2"/>

*Lagging indicators measure performance that follows events, and allow management to track how well actual performance matches that which was expected. An example could be the number of unexpected errors reported after a particular software release .

*Leading indicators measure progress towards events, and allow management to track whether it is on course to achieve the expected performance. An example would be the persistent failure of a supplier to meet quality requirements early in the project.

=== The Strategy Map and Balanced Scorecard ===
[[File:Strategymap.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Figure 1, Perspectives of a balanced scorecard arranged as a simple cause and effect model, From excitant.co.uk <ref name="stratmap">[https://www.excitant.co.uk/leading-and-lagging-indicators-making-sense-of-them/ ''Leading indicators and lagging indicators – making sense of them'', Phil Jones (2017), Last visited 28/02/21]</ref>]]
Across the perspective of the balanced scorecard, lag and lead indicators can be found. <ref name="stratmap"/> This shows that the leading and lagging indicators are all a matter of perspective. These can be used program and portfolio management to indicate a future performance, or record past performances and learn from those. For project management, these indicators can also be used to determine the degree of success recorded, or obtainable by a given project. However, the specific indication and how to use them is always a matter of the perspective. This is why the balanced scorecard showcases these key performance indicators well. From figure 1 the perspectives of a balanced scorecard is visualised and made into a strategy map. Kaplan and Norton argued that the leading indicators of one perspective lies in the perspective below. For example:

*In this case, a leading indicator for finances would be the customers. These customers could be an indication of end-of-year profits for an organisation.

*The customers could however in the same case be a lagging indicator for the sales team, as they are the recorded number of customers facilitated.

How to use these indicators is very much up for interpretation, as they indicate different scenarios based on the perspective. To use the strategy map you develop the objectives in each perspective and the cause and effect relationship between them. Then you look for measures and indicators of each objective. This gives you measures in each perspective that should monitor the deliver of the strategy’s cause and effect model. These causes and effects can differ widely, and can be interpreted and utilised in project management as well as portfolio and program management.

For project management, instead of just using lead and lag as indicators for the time aspect, leading and lagging can be used other perspectives, such as cost and quality. All project activities indicate and record the expected and past performance of the project in regards to various perspectives. From a project manager's point of view, these indicators and records should be put to use, to determine the course of the project so far, and in the future. This could be done with the strategy map, for various perspectives. This will allow the manager to change various activities and methods in order to best fulfil the scope of the project and ensure project success. What has become clear through research, is the fact that using the combination of lag and lead indicators has proven to enhance business performance overall. <ref name="intra"/>

== Using Lag and Lead to sequence activities ==
[[File:Sequence.png|400px|thumb|right|Figure 2, Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM) Relationship Type, From PMBOK Guide 6th edition 2017 <ref name="PMBOK"/>]]
When sequencing activities in regards to a project, determining the order of the activities is crucial. Often one starts with determining the logical relationship between project activities. In the PMI standard for project managing the precedence diagramming method consist of 4 different logical relationships or dependencies. <ref name="PMBOK"/> As defined by this standard the four relationships are:

*Finish-to-start (FS) A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor activity has finished.

*Finish-to-finish (FF) A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor activity has finished.

*Start-to-start (SS) A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor activity has started.

*Start-to-finish (SF) A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor activity has start.

In practice the FS is the most commonly used relationship, and the SF relationship is the rarest. It is possible for two activities to have two logical relationships at the same time, however multiple relationships between the same activities is not recommended. Here, the project manager should determine the relationship with the highest impact. <ref name="PMBOK"/>

This determination of logical relationships between activities is the first step to build a Project Schedule Network Diagram, and it is necessary in order to determine lag and lead times between activities.

Here is an example of the use of lag and lead times from the PMI standard for project management: <ref name="PMBOK"/>
[[File:lagandlead.png|500px|thumb|center|Figure 3, Examples of Lead and Lag, From PMBOK Guide 6th edition 2017 <ref name="PMBOK"/>]]
On a project to construct a new office building, the landscaping could be scheduled to start 2 weeks prior to scheduled punch list completion. This would be shown as a finish-to-start with a 2-week leads as shown on figure 3. For lag, a technical writing team may begin editing the draft of a large document 15 days after they begin writing it. This can be shown as a start-to-start relationship with a 15-day lag as shown in Figure 3.

In practice, the activities for figure 3 could not be properly scheduled without lead and lag times. In combination the the logical relationship, the project manager is able to use lead and lag to properly schedule and visualise the project timeline. This greatly improves the opportunity for project success, as all stakeholders and project members will be able to know the sequence of activities, when the Project Schedule Network Diagram is finished.

=== Project Schedule Network Diagram ===
[[File:psnd.png|500px|thumb|right|Figure 4, Example of a Project Network Schedule Diagram, From Project Management info, last visited 28/02/21 <ref name="pminfo"/>]]
A Project Schedule Network Diagram is a graphical representation of the logical relationships among the project schedule activities. <ref name="PMBOK"/> It serves as an important tool for visualisation for the project manager to be able to keep track of activities that has to be completed in order for the project to be completed. The Project Schedule Network Diagram addresses the logical relationships between project activities to show the order of which the activities should be scheduled. It is an overview of the entire project timeline, that can be used for:

*Determining the most important project activities in regards to the time-line.

*Keeping track of the project's development throughout its lifetime.

*Rescheduling activities in accordance with lag and lead times.

*Clarifying the optimal use of lag and lead times and logical relationships between activities to ensure project success.

*Etc.

The benefits of this tool is that the project manager is able to track dependencies and potential bottlenecks, establish workflows and the visual representation can be provided to the stakeholders as well. In this tool lag and lead times are crucial to the development. The project management team should determine the dependencies that may require a lead or a lag to accurately define the
logical relationship. The use of leads and lags should not replace schedule logic. Also, duration estimates do not include
any leads or lags. <ref name="PMBOK"/>

In large projects however, the use of this method to communicate the schedule is very rare, as the diagram can become very complicated. More often a more aggregated view of the schedule is used (ie. a [[Gantt|Gantt-diagram]]). <ref name="pminfo">[https://project-management.info/project-schedule-network-diagram/#2-what-is-a-project-network-diagram-used-for ''Project Schedule Network Diagram: Definition | Uses | Example'', Project management info, Last Visited 28/02/21]</ref> In these cases the Project Schedule Network diagram is used more often as a complex document linking the dependencies and sequences to the overall project schedule and duration. <ref name="pminfo"/>

An estimation of completion time for a project can be determined after the completion of the Project Schedule Network Diagram. Here Lag and lead times are used to decide the Critical Path.

=== Critical Path Method ===
[[File:CPM.png|400px|thumb|right|Figure 5, Example of the Critical Path Method, From PMBOK Guide 6th edition 2017 <ref name="PMBOK"/>]]
According to the PMI standard for project management: The critical path method is used to estimate the minimum project duration and determine the amount of schedule flexibility on the logical network paths within the schedule model. <ref name="PMBOK"/> By performing a backwards and forwards pass analysis together with lag and lead times through the project network, this method calculates the early start, early finish, late start and late finish dates of all activities without any regard for resource limitations. <ref name="PMBOK"/> In figure 5, the longest path is shown with black arrows. This path, since it's the longest, determines the earliest completion time of the given project. This is known as the critical path, and it is often the path with the least amount of float.

Float is not to be confused with lag and lead. The float is defined as: "The total float or schedule flexibility is measured by the amount of time that a scheduled activity can be delayed or extended from its early start date without delaying the project finish date or violating a schedule constraint."<ref name="PMBOK"/> Where lag and lead times show the possible delay or advancement in relation to other activities, the float is an indicator of the schedule's flexibility. Therefore it makes sense that the critical path, would be the path with the least float time, as delaying an activity in the critical path would usually extend the project finish date.

To calculate the early start, early finish, late start, late finish and float first, the forward pass is used: <ref name="PMIcongress">[https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/critical-path-method-calculations-scheduling-8040 ''Kramer, S. W. & Jenkins, J. L. Understanding the basics of CPM calculations: what is scheduling software really telling you?'', Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI), 2006]</ref>

*Early Start = Maximum (or Highest) EF value from immediate Predecessor(s) + Lag/lead from immediate Predecessor(s)
*Early Finish = ES + Duration

Afterwards the backwards pass is used:

*Late Start = LF – Duration
*Late Finish = Minimum (or Lowest) LS value from immediate Successor(s) - Lag/Lead from Immediate Successor(s)

These numbers are then used to calculate the float time:

*Total Float = LS – ES (it is also calculated by LF – EF)
*Free Float = Lowest ES of successors – EF

= Limitations =
=== Limitations of lag and lead in Sequencing Activities ===
When using lag and lead for sequencing activities it is important to note, that it is not a method that can be used as a standalone. Lag and lead must be used in combination with other tools, as the lag and lead times in a Project Schedule Network Diagram are negligible without determining the logical relationships between the activities. In other words, there would be no use for them.

Lag and lead times does not include the duration of activities in the project network. It is purely a schedule measure to determine whether or not a given activity can be delayed or advanced. They are necessary and important, however they do not provide further insight to the sequencing of activities other than the time schedule by themselves.

Lag and lead times are also not absolute and can be a subject to change throughout the course of the project, and can be very hard to determine in the beginning of the project. Therefore project network usually needs to be updated as the project progresses. It is of utmost importance for a project manager to keep this in mind, as the consequences for the scheduling can be severe if wrong lag and lead times are used.

=== Limitations of lag and lead as Key Performance Indicators ===
Using lag and lead indicators as Key Performance Indicators, it is important to remember that they are dependant on each other. Lead indicators are exciting because they can influence change, but without lagging indicators, leading indicators will encourage tunnel vision, and provide no confirmation that the desired results have been achieved. <ref name="intra"/> Lagging indicators without leading indicators provide no indicators on how to achieve or change results. <ref name="intra"/> Lagging indicators are also very easy to measure, but hard to improve, whereas leading indicators, if relied on too much can distort course of the project. When using lead indicators, it is important to differentiate between trying to predict the future, and searching for tendencies.

Leading indicators alone will show a future that is unreliable. The tendencies achieved from measuring leading indicators should be carefully examined. Exterior factors can influence the indicators, and therefore it is very important for a manager not to get tunnel vision. They are not an accurate representation of the future, but they are however representations of tendencies, that can be pursued. These tendencies have to undergo careful examination in order to determine the best possible way to pursue the desired direction or outcome. In order to reach that destination, lagging indicators are just as important, to track whether the management is on the right path. Knowing the limits of the tools is crucial for the project manager to use them correctly.

= Annotated Bibliography =

'''Project Management: A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK guide) 6th Edition'', Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI), 2017'''

This book is Project Management Institute's standard for project management. This has provided the definition of lag and lead in the context of scheduling activities. It has also provided an overview of various methods and tools that can be used for scheduling activities in combination with lag and lead. There are additional tools, to the ones included in this article, described in this standard.

'''Project Management: "Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2" 6th Edition'', AXELOS and Office Cabinet, 2017'''

This book has provided the definition for KPI's and lagging and leading indicators. It is the british standard "Prince 2" for project management. The material that this book has to offer on this subject is scarce. It is important to note that this standard's definition of other topics included in this article differ slightly from PMI's standard, which is the one that has been used for this purpose.

'''Lead and Lag Indicators https://www.intrafocus.com/lead-and-lag-indicators/'''

An article on lead and lag indicators from Intrafocus. This article provides general definitions on the terms as well as a basic understanding of the fundamentals behind leading and lagging indicators, as well as some of their limitations.

'''Leading indicators and lagging indicators – making sense of them, Phil Jones (2017) https://www.excitant.co.uk/leading-and-lagging-indicators-making-sense-of-them/'''

An article by Phil Jones for Excitant.co.uk. This article provides further insight to the use and definitions of lagging and leading indicators, as well as specific examples for their uses, in organisational contexts.

'''Project Schedule Network Diagram: Definition | Uses | Example, Project management info https://project-management.info/project-schedule-network-diagram/#2-what-is-a-project-network-diagram-used-for'''

This article provides some clarification of the uses and the definition of the project network diagram. It also provides various examples and figures, one of which has been used in this article.

'''Kramer, S. W. & Jenkins, J. L. Understanding the basics of CPM calculations: what is scheduling software really telling you?, Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI), 2006 https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/critical-path-method-calculations-scheduling-8040'''

An excerpt of a paper presented at the Project Management Institute in 2006. This paper provides the method of calculation the different variables in the critical path method, that is included in this article.

= References =
Examples
<References/>

[[Category: Lag and Lead]]
[[Category: Project Management]]
[[Category: Portfolio Management]]
[[Category: Program Management]]

Lag and Lead

2021-02-28T22:38:17Z

Jacob Lützhøft:

Lag and Lead

2021-02-28T22:36:24Z

Jacob Lützhøft:

''Jacob Lützhøft Christensen s184113''

In the field of project schedule management, the terms lag and lead are widely utilised to maintain project schedule by determining possibilities of schedule advancement or delay. A lead is the amount of time a successor activity can be advanced with respect to a predecessor activity. <ref name="PMBOK">[https://app-knovel-com.proxy.findit.dtu.dk/web/toc.v/cid:kpGPMBKP02/viewerType:toc//root_slug:viewerType%3Atoc/url_slug:root_slug%3Aguide-project-management?kpromoter=federation ''Project Management: A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK guide) 6th Edition'', Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI), 2017]</ref> A lag is the amount of time a successor activity will be delayed with respect to a predecessor activity. <ref name="PMBOK"/> Traditionally the measure of project success has been limited to concepts of time, quality and cost, however these concepts might not provide a full picture of project success. <ref name="Prince2">[https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.proxy.findit.dtu.dk/lib/DTUDK/detail.action?docID=4863041 ''Project Management: "Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2" 6th Edition'', AXELOS and Office Cabinet, 2017]</ref> In the traditional sense of project success, lag and lead has had an important role in fulfilling the need of time management in projects, however the terms of lag and lead are not purely schedule management tools. According to the project management standard PRINCE 2, the status of projects are best measured for one point in time by its key performance indicators (KPI), which should be balanced between qualitative and quantitative measures, leading and lagging indicators, and project inputs and outputs. <ref name="Prince2"/>

A key perfomance indicator (KPI) is a measure of performance that is used to help an organization define and evaluate how successful it is in making progress towards its organizational objectives. <ref name="Prince2"/> These indicators are widely used in organisational contexts, to measure, record, predict and improve perfomance. Indicators for future and past performances are time-based indicators which are distinguished by the terms: lag and lead indicators. This means that lag and lead are not limited to scheduling activities in a task sequence format, but can be used as indicators to determine the perfomance of a project's quality and cost at a given time as well.

----
= Big Idea =

Lag and lead can be powerful tools both for project schedule management and as key perfomance indicators. In order to ensure or measure project success it is essential to learn how and when to use these terms, and their limitations.

For schedule management lag and lead are mostly used for sequencing activities. Sequence activity is the process of identifying and documenting relationships among the project activities. <ref name="PMBOK"/> The benefit for this is to define a logical relationship between processes, and thereby obtaining an order of activities that is the most efficient path towards the realization of the project, given all project constraints. This order of activities should then be used to formulate a realistic project schedule. For the project schedule to be realistic, the implementation of tools and techniques such as lead and lag times are necessary. Given the uncertainty aspect of projects, usually for a project schedule to be maintained throughout the project's lifetime, lag and lead are used to either advance or delay certain activities in relation to either its predecessor or successor activities. If lag and lead times were determined for all activities before the project commenced the schedule will be unaffected in a situation of a slight unexpected delay.

As key perfomance indicators lag and lead is incredibly co-dependant and can be used as indication for project performance, cost, quality and more.

A lead indicator, is an indicator which is forward looking. Meaning it attempts to show a future perfomance. These indicators can be difficult to determine, as they are prone to subjectivity and error, and can cause debate as to the validity of the lead indicators measured. <ref name="intra">[https://www.intrafocus.com/lead-and-lag-indicators/ ''Lead and Lag Indicators'', Intrafocus, Last visited: 14/02/21]</ref>. Lagging indicators measure historical perfomance, and tends to focus on outcomes. This makes them easy to record, and they are essential for charting progress, however they do not influence the future as lead indicators do. The power of lead indicators is that they have the ability to predict future conditions, and allow you to take preemptive actions in order to achieve strategic goals. However to predict future conditions, it is necessary to use lagging indicators which essentially record current conditions. These indicators can in combination be applied to determine trends and record the degree of success of pursuing these trends.

= Application =

== Using Lag and Lead as Key Performance Indicators ==
From the british standard for project management "Prince 2", the definition of lead and lag indicators is: <ref name="Prince2"/>

*Lagging indicators measure performance that follows events, and allow management to track how well actual performance matches that which was expected. An example could be the number of unexpected errors reported after a particular software release .

*Leading indicators measure progress towards events, and allow management to track whether it is on course to achieve the expected performance. An example would be the persistent failure of a supplier to meet quality requirements early in the project.

=== The Strategy Map and Balanced Scorecard ===
[[File:Strategymap.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Figure 1, Perspectives of a balanced scorecard arranged as a simple cause and effect model, From excitant.co.uk <ref name="stratmap">[https://www.excitant.co.uk/leading-and-lagging-indicators-making-sense-of-them/ ''Leading indicators and lagging indicators – making sense of them'', Phil Jones (2017), Last visited 28/02/21]</ref>]]
Across the perspective of the balanced scorecard, lag and lead indicators can be found. <ref name="stratmap"/> This shows that the leading and lagging indicators are all a matter of perspective. These can be used program and portfolio management to indicate a future performance, or record past performances and learn from those. For project management, these indicators can also be used to determine the degree of success recorded, or obtainable by a given project. However, the specific indication and how to use them is always a matter of the perspective. This is why the balanced scorecard showcases these key performance indicators well. From figure 1 the perspectives of a balanced scorecard is visualised and made into a strategy map. Kaplan and Norton argued that the leading indicators of one perspective lies in the perspective below. For example:

*In this case, a leading indicator for finances would be the customers. These customers could be an indication of end-of-year profits for an organisation.

*The customers could however in the same case be a lagging indicator for the sales team, as they are the recorded number of customers facilitated.

How to use these indicators is very much up for interpretation, as they indicate different scenarios based on the perspective. To use the strategy map you develop the objectives in each perspective and the cause and effect relationship between them. Then you look for measures and indicators of each objective. This gives you measures in each perspective that should monitor the deliver of the strategy’s cause and effect model. These causes and effects can differ widely, and can be interpreted and utilised in project management as well as portfolio and program management.

For project management, instead of just using lead and lag as indicators for the time aspect, leading and lagging can be used other perspectives, such as cost and quality. All project activities indicate and record the expected and past performance of the project in regards to various perspectives. From a project manager's point of view, these indicators and records should be put to use, to determine the course of the project so far, and in the future. This could be done with the strategy map, for various perspectives. This will allow the manager to change various activities and methods in order to best fulfil the scope of the project and ensure project success. What has become clear through research, is the fact that using the combination of lag and lead indicators has proven to enhance business performance overall. <ref name="intra"/>

== Using Lag and Lead to sequence activities ==
[[File:Sequence.png|400px|thumb|right|Figure 2, Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM) Relationship Type, From PMBOK Guide 6th edition 2017 <ref name="PMBOK"/>]]
When sequencing activities in regards to a project, determining the order of the activities is crucial. Often one starts with determining the logical relationship between project activities. In the PMI standard for project managing the precedence diagramming method consist of 4 different logical relationships or dependencies. <ref name="PMBOK"/> As defined by this standard the four relationships are:

*Finish-to-start (FS) A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor activity has finished.

*Finish-to-finish (FF) A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor activity has finished.

*Start-to-start (SS) A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor activity has started.

*Start-to-finish (SF) A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor activity has start.

In practice the FS is the most commonly used relationship, and the SF relationship is the rarest. It is possible for two activities to have two logical relationships at the same time, however multiple relationships between the same activities is not recommended. Here, the project manager should determine the relationship with the highest impact. <ref name="PMBOK"/>

This determination of logical relationships between activities is the first step to build a Project Schedule Network Diagram, and it is necessary in order to determine lag and lead times between activities.

Here is an example of the use of lag and lead times from the PMI standard for project management: <ref name="PMBOK"/>
[[File:lagandlead.png|500px|thumb|center|Figure 3, Examples of Lead and Lag, From PMBOK Guide 6th edition 2017 <ref name="PMBOK"/>]]
On a project to construct a new office building, the landscaping could be scheduled to start 2 weeks prior to scheduled punch list completion. This would be shown as a finish-to-start with a 2-week leads as shown on figure 3. For lag, a technical writing team may begin editing the draft of a large document 15 days after they begin writing it. This can be shown as a start-to-start relationship with a 15-day lag as shown in Figure 3.

In practice, the activities for figure 3 could not be properly scheduled without lead and lag times. In combination the the logical relationship, the project manager is able to use lead and lag to properly schedule and visualise the project timeline. This greatly improves the opportunity for project success, as all stakeholders and project members will be able to know the sequence of activities, when the Project Schedule Network Diagram is finished.

=== Project Schedule Network Diagram ===
[[File:psnd.png|500px|thumb|right|Figure 4, Example of a Project Network Schedule Diagram, From Project Management info, last visited 28/02/21 <ref name="pminfo"/>]]
A Project Schedule Network Diagram is a graphical representation of the logical relationships among the project schedule activities. <ref name="PMBOK"/> It serves as an important tool for visualisation for the project manager to be able to keep track of activities that has to be completed in order for the project to be completed. The Project Schedule Network Diagram addresses the logical relationships between project activities to show the order of which the activities should be scheduled. It is an overview of the entire project timeline, that can be used for:

*Determining the most important project activities in regards to the time-line.

*Keeping track of the project's development throughout its lifetime.

*Rescheduling activities in accordance with lag and lead times.

*Clarifying the optimal use of lag and lead times and logical relationships between activities to ensure project success.

*Etc.

The benefits of this tool is that the project manager is able to track dependencies and potential bottlenecks, establish workflows and the visual representation can be provided to the stakeholders as well. In this tool lag and lead times are crucial to the development. The project management team should determine the dependencies that may require a lead or a lag to accurately define the
logical relationship. The use of leads and lags should not replace schedule logic. Also, duration estimates do not include
any leads or lags. <ref name="PMBOK"/>

In large projects however, the use of this method to communicate the schedule is very rare, as the diagram can become very complicated. More often a more aggregated view of the schedule is used (ie. a [[Gantt|Gantt-diagram]]). <ref name="pminfo">[https://project-management.info/project-schedule-network-diagram/#2-what-is-a-project-network-diagram-used-for ''Project Schedule Network Diagram: Definition | Uses | Example'', Project management info, Last Visited 28/02/21]</ref> In these cases the Project Schedule Network diagram is used more often as a complex document linking the dependencies and sequences to the overall project schedule and duration. <ref name="pminfo"/>

An estimation of completion time for a project can be determined after the completion of the Project Schedule Network Diagram. Here Lag and lead times are used to decide the Critical Path.

=== Critical Path Method ===
[[File:CPM.png|400px|thumb|right|Figure 5, Example of the Critical Path Method, From PMBOK Guide 6th edition 2017 <ref name="PMBOK"/>]]
According to the PMI standard for project management: The critical path method is used to estimate the minimum project duration and determine the amount of schedule flexibility on the logical network paths within the schedule model. <ref name="PMBOK"/> By performing a backwards and forwards pass analysis together with lag and lead times through the project network, this method calculates the early start, early finish, late start and late finish dates of all activities without any regard for resource limitations. <ref name="PMBOK"/> In figure 5, the longest path is shown with black arrows. This path, since it's the longest, determines the earliest completion time of the given project. This is known as the critical path, and it is often the path with the least amount of float.

Float is not to be confused with lag and lead. The float is defined as: "The total float or schedule flexibility is measured by the amount of time that a scheduled activity can be delayed or extended from its early start date without delaying the project finish date or violating a schedule constraint."<ref name="PMBOK"/> Where lag and lead times show the possible delay or advancement in relation to other activities, the float is an indicator of the schedule's flexibility. Therefore it makes sense that the critical path, would be the path with the least float time, as delaying an activity in the critical path would usually extend the project finish date.

To calculate the early start, early finish, late start, late finish and float first, the forward pass is used: <ref name="PMIcongress">[https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/critical-path-method-calculations-scheduling-8040 ''Kramer, S. W. & Jenkins, J. L. Understanding the basics of CPM calculations: what is scheduling software really telling you?'', Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI), 2006]</ref>

*Early Start = Maximum (or Highest) EF value from immediate Predecessor(s) + Lag/lead from immediate Predecessor(s)
*Early Finish = ES + Duration

Afterwards the backwards pass is used:

*Late Start = LF – Duration
*Late Finish = Minimum (or Lowest) LS value from immediate Successor(s) - Lag/Lead from Immediate Successor(s)

These numbers are then used to calculate the float time:

*Total Float = LS – ES (it is also calculated by LF – EF)
*Free Float = Lowest ES of successors – EF

= Limitations =
=== Limitations of lag and lead in Sequencing Activities ===
When using lag and lead for sequencing activities it is important to note, that it is not a method that can be used as a standalone. Lag and lead must be used in combination with other tools, as the lag and lead times in a Project Schedule Network Diagram are negligible without determining the logical relationships between the activities. In other words, there would be no use for them.

Lag and lead times does not include the duration of activities in the project network. It is purely a schedule measure to determine whether or not a given activity can be delayed or advanced. They are necessary and important, however they do not provide further insight to the sequencing of activities other than the time schedule by themselves.

Lag and lead times are also not absolute and can be a subject to change throughout the course of the project, and can be very hard to determine in the beginning of the project. Therefore project network usually needs to be updated as the project progresses. It is of utmost importance for a project manager to keep this in mind, as the consequences for the scheduling can be severe if wrong lag and lead times are used.

=== Limitations of lag and lead as Key Performance Indicators ===
Using lag and lead indicators as Key Performance Indicators, it is important to remember that they are dependant on each other. Lead indicators are exciting because they can influence change, but without lagging indicators, leading indicators will encourage tunnel vision, and provide no confirmation that the desired results have been achieved. <ref name="intra"/> Lagging indicators without leading indicators provide no indicators on how to achieve or change results. <ref name="intra"/> Lagging indicators are also very easy to measure, but hard to improve, whereas leading indicators, if relied on too much can distort course of the project. When using lead indicators, it is important to differentiate between trying to predict the future, and searching for tendencies.

Leading indicators alone will show a future that is unreliable. The tendencies achieved from measuring leading indicators should be carefully examined. Exterior factors can influence the indicators, and therefore it is very important for a manager not to get tunnel vision. They are not an accurate representation of the future, but they are however representations of tendencies, that can be pursued. These tendencies have to undergo careful examination in order to determine the best possible way to pursue the desired direction or outcome. In order to reach that destination, lagging indicators are just as important, to track whether the management is on the right path. Knowing the limits of the tools is crucial for the project manager to use them correctly.

= Annotated Bibliography =

'''Project Management: A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK guide) 6th Edition'', Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI), 2017'''

This book is Project Management Institute's standard for project management. This has provided the definition of lag and lead in the context of scheduling activities. It has also provided an overview of various methods and tools that can be used for scheduling activities in combination with lag and lead. There are additional tools, to the ones included in this article, described in this standard.

'''Project Management: "Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2" 6th Edition'', AXELOS and Office Cabinet, 2017'''

This book has provided the definition for KPI's and lagging and leading indicators. It is the british standard "Prince 2" for project management. The material that this book has to offer on this subject is scarce. It is important to note that this standard's definition of other topics included in this article differ slightly from PMI's standard, which is the one that has been used for this purpose.

'''Lead and Lag Indicators https://www.intrafocus.com/lead-and-lag-indicators/'''

An article on lead and lag indicators from Intrafocus. This article provides general definitions on the terms as well as a basic understanding of the fundamentals behind leading and lagging indicators, as well as some of their limitations.

'''Leading indicators and lagging indicators – making sense of them, Phil Jones (2017) https://www.excitant.co.uk/leading-and-lagging-indicators-making-sense-of-them/'''

An article by Phil Jones for Excitant.co.uk. This article provides further insight to the use and definitions of lagging and leading indicators, as well as specific examples for their uses, in organisational contexts.

'''Project Schedule Network Diagram: Definition | Uses | Example, Project management info https://project-management.info/project-schedule-network-diagram/#2-what-is-a-project-network-diagram-used-for'''

This article provides some clarification of the uses and the definition of the project network diagram. It also provides various examples and figures, one of which has been used in this article.

'''Kramer, S. W. & Jenkins, J. L. Understanding the basics of CPM calculations: what is scheduling software really telling you?, Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI), 2006 https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/critical-path-method-calculations-scheduling-8040'''

An excerpt of a paper presented at the Project Management Institute in 2006. This paper provides the method of calculation the different variables in the critical path method, that is included in this article.

= References =
Examples
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[[Category: Lag and Lead]
[[Category: Project Management]]
[[Category: APPM]]
[[Category: Gantt]]
[[Category: Sequence Activities]]
[[Category: Project Schedule Network Diagram]]
[[Category: Key Performance Indicator]]
[[Category: Critical Path Method]]
[[Category: The Balanced Scorecard]]
[[Category: The Strategy Map]]

2021-02-14T21:32:10Z

Jacob Lützhøft: Created page with " Lag and lead indicators, According to the british standard "Program Management: "Managing Successful Programmes“", a Key Performance Indicator (KPI), is a metric (either ..."

Lag and lead indicators,

According to the british standard "Program Management: "Managing Successful Programmes“", a Key Performance Indicator (KPI), is a metric (either financial or non-financial) that is used to set and measure progress towards an organisational objective. <ref>[https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.proxy.findit.dtu.dk/lib/dtudk/reader.action?docID=4462753 ''AXELOS and Office Cabinet'', Managing Successful Programmes 2011 Edition, August, 2011]</ref>.

Type of perfomance measurement that will help you understand how your organisation is performing

In project, program and portfolio management, realising the potential of lag and lead indicators, can be a vital part of ensuring a succesful endeavour.

''Jacob Lützhøft Christensen s184113''

Reference code: <ref>[http://au.hudson.com/talent-management/organisational-change-management ''Hudson'', Organisational Change Management, November, 2014]</ref>.
<ref>[Kotter J.P. (1996) ''Leading Change'', BOSTON, Harvard Business School Press]</ref>

Reference link: [[Designing Project Teams|team]], [[Group Dynamics and Personality Types|human behaviour]], [[Stephen Covey]]

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